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^ ■ m^^^f^mmvmmmrm' * %ft « ■■ n , i — im m *. - '
WWWWP
/■
'
GRAMMAR
OF THE
PERSIAN LANGUAGE.
TO WHICH IS ADDED,
A SELECTION OF EASY EXTRACTS FOR READING,
TOGETHER WITH
A COPIOUS VOCABULARY.
BY DUNCAN FORBES, A.M.
MEMBER OP THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OP OHEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
Member of the Asiatic society op paris,
and propessor op oiklental languages and literature in
king's college, LONDON.
CC' -^ c^
c
c ^
SECOND EDITION,
GREATLY IMPROVED AND CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR.
SOLD BY MESSRS. ALLEN & CO.
BOOKSELLERS TO THE HONOURABLE EAST-INDIA COMPANY, 1 LBADENHALL STREET ;
AND BY
MESSRS. MADDEN & CO.
ORIENTAL BOOKSELLBBS, 8 LEADENBAU STREET.
1844
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION I.
Of the Persi- Arabic Alphabet : — Primitive Vowels, p. 6 — The Con-
sonants 1, £, ^, and 4^, p. 8 — Of the symbols jazm and
tashdM, p. 10— Of the letters I, ^, and j^, as Vowels, p. 11 —
Of the symbol harma, p. 17 — Of Arabic words, &c., p. 17 —
Exercises for Reading and Writing, p. 20 — ^Numerical valne of
the Letters, p. 23.
SECTION II.
Of Substantives, &c. : — Of Gender, p. 20 — Formation of Plurals,
p. 20 — Declension of Nouns, p. 27. — Of Adjectives, p. 31. —
Of Pronouns* p. 32.— The Verb, p. 35 — Of the Infinitive and
Verbal Root, p. 40— Passive Voice, p. 46— Causal Verbs, p. 46 —
Negative and Prohibitive Verbs, p. 48.
SECTION III.
Of Adverbs, p. 50. — Prepositions, p. 51. — Conjunctions, p. 51. —
Interjections, p. 52. — Numerals, p. 53. — Derivation of Words,
p. 55. — Composition of Words, p. 58.
SECTION IV.
On Syntax : — Analysis of Sentences, p. 65 — Arrangement of Words,
p. 67 — Easy Fable, preceded by Analysis, p. 72 — Construction
of Substantives, Adjectives, and Prepositions, p. 73 — Of Pro-
nouns, p. 76— Reciprocal, p. 77— Relative, p. 80— Interrogative,
p. 81— Concord of Verbs, p. 82— Government of Verbs, p. 84 —
The termination .1, p. 86— Auxiliary Verbs, p. 88— Conjunc-
tions, 89 — Conclusion, p. 90.
N.B. The Author regrets to find that the following errors, not-
withstanding his care in correcting the proof-sheets, have escaped his
notice till too late : — In p. 37, 1. 11, for c;*^J-*^j;» ^^^ U'^^i^ 5
p. 80, 1. 26, forj^, readjs^. In the Selections, Story 4, 1. 2, for
0***ij/, read c:^v*Jlj];i ; Story 70, 1. 8, for a*3^, read ^j*^ ;
the last word of the same Story should be t^]/**, instead of ig^'y**-
PREFACE.
The object of the following Work is to facilitate the acqui-
sition of a language universally allowed to be the richest
and most elegant of those spoken in Modem Asia. To
the general scholar, the Persian recommends itself, from
its vast stores of graceful and solid literature. To the
traveller in the East, a knowledge of it is as essential
as that of the French used to be in Europe. Lastly, to
those gallant bands of British Youth, who annually resort
to India, destined to become, in their turn, the guardians
of our Eastern Empire, an acquaintance with Persian is of
the utmost importance. In the first place, it is the Court
language of the Musulman Princes, and that of the
higher classes generally; and in the second place, a know-
ledge of it is requisite for the proper attainment of the
Hindustani, or popular language, which is spoken and
understood, more or less, in every part of the country.
I have been long convinced, from experience, that a
work like the present is a desideratum. A Grammar of
any language, adapted for a beginner, ought to be brief
and perspicuous, containing only the general and more
useful principles of such language. It ought to be ac-
companied with easy extracts for practice, as well as
a copious Vocabulary. At the same time, the shortest
Grammar is too long for a beginner : therefore, those parts
absolutely necessary for the first reading ought to be
rendered more prominent, by the use of a larger type.
Lastly, the work ought to be confined entirely to its
legitimate purpose — the instructing of beginners ; not de-
viating into ingenious metaphysical and etymological dis-
cussions, however interesting in their proper place : nor
11 PREFACE.
should it be over-crowded with superfluous paradigms of
Verbs, &c., so as to swell up the volume to an imdue extent.
If this criterion of a good elementary Grammar is sound,
which I think few men of sense will dispute, then there is
ample room for the present little work, however imperfect
in execution, as the first attempt of the kind that has yet
been made in this country, with regard to the Persian
language.
Let it not be supposed, that because this book is small
in bulk it must necessarily be superficial and imperfect :
y^ \^::.,.jkXM Ji^ d-^lw to-^ ai. On the contrary, I am con-
vinced that the student will here find all the information
of any consequence contained in larger volumes, and a
great deal which they do not contain. I have endeavoured
throughout the work to enlarge upon those i)arts of the
subject which I have observed to be most needed by
beginners. Such parts of the Grammar of the Persian
language as agree with our own, or with that of European
languages in* general, I have passed over with the utmost
brevity.
The only work on the subject to which I am under
any obligation is the Persian Grammar of Dr. Lums-
den, Calcutta, 1810, in two folio volumes. From this
valuable work I have extracted many a pearl, though
it must be confessed, I was obliged often to dive through
an enormous mass of water to procure it. Still, with all
its metaphysics and verbosity. Dr. Lumsden's Grammar
ought to be perused by every one who wishes to acquire a
thorough knowledge of the Persian language. It is indeed
a pity that the Work should not be reprinted in this
country : it would form two octavo volumes ; and, when
printed in our elegant types, and on good paper, it would
not look nearly so formidable and repulsive as it does in
its present state.
The Selections for Reading, appended to the Grammar,
consist of one hundred anecdotes, commencing with the
PREFACE. HI
shortest and easiest. The first seventy of them have the
short vowels and the symbol ya;?w marked in foil; and in
the remainder the marks have been omitted, except in
the case of an izafaty or when there might arise an am-
biguity from the omission. I have, throughout the Selec-
tions, given a species of punctuation, which the reader
will find very serviceable. The d<ish ( — \ denotes a half-
stop, like our comma, or semicolon : the star (*), a full
stop ; and the note of interrogation is the same as our
own, though it might be improved by turning it backwards.
Of the propriety of employing some sort of punctuation in
oriental compositions there can be no doubt: the be-
ginners will find diflficulties enough to encounter, even
when they know where the sentence begins and ends, which
is really no unreasonable indulgence.
The greater number of the anecdotes are from Gladwin's
Persian Munshi, printed in quarto about 1800, a work now
very scarce, I am aware that Gladwin's anecdotes have
been since reprinted, both here and on the Continent, but
not in such a way as to be of any service to a beginner ;
for, by the use of them, he will contract a vicious mode of
pronunciation, which he will afterwards have to unlearn.
About thirty anecdotes, more or less, which are not in
Gladwin, have been extracted from a substantial and well-
written MS., a sort of Persian Joe Miller in its way,
called the Khtddsat un-nasaihy or " the Essence of Counsels."
It was my intention to have added some twenty or thirty
pages of extracts from the best Persian Poets ; but, on
consideration, I have deferred this for the present. Should
the work be deemed worthy of another edition, it is my
intention to add — 1st. A section on Arabic words, such as
occur most frequently in Persian, confining myself merely
to their mechanism, and the changes which they undergo ;
2dly, A treatise on the Prosody of the language, which is
greatly wanted; for without a knowledge of the various
metres, much of the beauty of the Persian Poets is lost.
4
^
IV PREFACE.
and besides, the metre frequently assists us in detecting
errors of the copyists. At the same time, the Selections
and Vocabulary will be proportionally extended, by the
addition of some specimens from the best Prose Writers,
and extracts from Ihe Poets.
In conclusion, let me address myself to the student as to
the plan for perusing this work. In the first place, make
yourself perfectly acquainted with the letters, and their
various sounds ; after which, endeavour to read and re-
member the declension of the substantives niard and kitaby
pages 29 and 30 ; and the verb rasidan, page 35. This
done, read over carefully the fable, page 71, an analysis of
which precedes; and, afterwards, read the two stories,
pages 20 and 21, ascertaining the meaning of eVery word
from the Vocabulary. The next step is, to read carefully
all the paragraphs in the Grammar printed in large type ;
after which, read and translate, by the aid of the Vocabu-
lary, the first ten or twelve pages of the Selections. Being
now able to read fluently, peruse the Grammar from be-
ginning to end. I do not mean that you should commit it
to memory ; but read it with such attention, that you may
afterwards be able to know where to look for any rule or
explanation of which you may feel the want. Lastly,
preserve by you an accurate translation of every story as
you proceed in the Selections ; and at the end of six weeks
or two months, endeavour to restore your translation back
into Persian. Proceed thus till you have finished the
took, and you will then find yourself possessed of a very
fair elementary knowledge of the language.
D. FORBES.
8 ALFRED STREET, BEDFORD SQUARE,
August 1844.
PERSIAN GRAMMAR
SECTION I.
ON THE LETTERS AND SYMBOLS USED IN WRITING.
1. The Persians* have for many centuries adopted the
Alphabet of the Arabs, consisting of Twenty-eight letters :
to which they have added four other characters, to express
sounds peculiar to their own language. These letters,
then. Thirty-two in number, are written and read from
right to left; and, consequently, their books and manu-
scripts begin at what we should call the end. Several of
the letters assume different forms, according to their posi-
tion in the formation of a word or a combined group ; as
may be seen in the following Table, Column V. Thus,
in a combination of three or more letters, the first of the
group, on the right-hand side, will have the form marked
Initial; the letter or letters between the first and last will
have the form marked Medial; and the last, on the left,
will have the Final form. Observe, also, that in this Table;
Column I, contains the names of the letters in the Persian
character; 11. the same in Roman character; III. the
detached form of the letters, which should be learned first ;
and IV. the corresponding English letters.
* The Alphabet here described is used, generally speaking, by all those
nations who have adopted the religion of Muhammad ; viz. along the North
and East of Africa, in Turkey, Arabia and Persia, and by the Mussulman
portion of the people of India and Malacca.
( 2 )
THE PERSI-ARABIC ALPHABET.
I.
IL
III.
DETACHKD
FORM.
IV.
POWUt.
V.
COMBINED FORM.
VI.
EXEMPUFICATION8.
NAM£.
FinaL
Med.
Initial.
Final.
MediaL
iDitial.
^\
alif
\
a,^c.
\
I
\
!j
13
>
^1
•
be
•
b
*
-*f
•
• •
ft
A
•
JV«
••V
pe
r
P
V
^'i
4->
V *
.;*--
•
J^
Li
te
** 4
t
••
JCI
^3
^J^
c
>»
86
A.
s
^A^
Jii
>5
^JL>
•
A
A
r*!r
jim
?L
•
J
t
♦
•
a
/
A
•
ij«-
«•
che
Z
ch
t
V
?-
c^
^
^
«•
he
C
h
t
*
«-
^
G?^
>■
J^
•
khe
•
kh
t
•
•
C^
&
^
•
jis
ddl
3
d
j>
vX
^
iU,
J^a
loi
Jib
zal
•
3
z
•
•
•
3
•
j«li
>
"/J
re
J
r
^J
^rj
J
>
J*
C
IV
</j
ze
•
J
z
« •
•
J
>
y
^
0^
*
JO
<i?5
zhe
zh
A A
**
A
JK
J^^
s^>
c
*
^i^*» •
sin
(j*»
s
LT
M*
ij»V
{J^
^
ui^
shin
(>
sh
A
A
-J»
o^V
U^
JCIJ
Js^
^\jO
sad
u«
s
U^
1
1
JO
f^jo\j
&
sJoa5
vX^
THE PERSI-ARABIC ALPHABET— c(m/m««rf.
L
II.
m.
DETACbED
FORM.
IV.
POWER.
V.
COMBINED FORM.
VI.
EXEMPLIFICATIONS.
NAMS.
Final.
Med. Initial
FiDal.
Medial.
Initial.
ala
zdd
U«
js:
<JO-
*
•
r
f 9
• •
toe
1.
t
k
k
L
la^
£^
^
>
«•
zoe
1p
z
k
k
1^
ki^
>
>
ui^
din
e:
a,^c.
^
H
p-
^Lo
^JUO
(Ji^
ghdin
gh
•
i"^
2r»
•••
J-fr
•
(J
••
f^
»
■ f
•
A
*
5
ciK
uiT
Jui
•
• u»
kdf
•*
k
L
A
5
^'^
U^
**
J^
^\^
kaf
c^
k
<^
s:
r
c^li.
c^
^
<^
cjlf
g^f
c^
g
^
f
f
c4
C^j
>
x*
/
r^
lam
J
I
J
1
3
JU
J^
r^
^.
mtm
r
m
r
^^
<0
^W
cr^
cr*
ciy
nun
CJ
n
c:;
• *
**-
^i
•
1^
j!^
waw
J
w, Sfc.
^
^
J
^
^
he
2
h
&
t4
ib
^u
^L3
1
l*-
^
>*
—•*
ye
Lf
•*
yM-
-^«
Jo
••
Note, The learner will observe, that the letters 1, t), ^yj* Jyjf and^ do not
alter in shape, whether Initial, Medial, or Final. Another peculiarity which they have,
is, that they never unite with the letter following, to the left. The letters t and t , in
like manner, do not alter, but they always unite with the letter following on the left hand.
4 OF THE FERSI-ABABIC ALPHABET.
2. Perhaps the best mode of learning the Alphabet^ is^
First, to write out several times the detached or fiill forms
of the letters in Column III. Secondly, to observe what
changes (if any) these undergo, when combined in the
formation of words, as exhibited in Column V. Lastly,
to endeavour to transfer, into their corresponding English
letters, the words given as exemplifications in Column VI.
3. In the foregoing Table, most of the letters are suflB-
ciently represented by the corresponding English letters ;
(the sound of the characters ^ ch and (^ sh being the
same as in the word Cheshire,) it will be necessary therefore
merely to notice those that slightly differ from our own
pronunciation, which are the following :
C^ The sound of this letter is softer and more dental
than that of the English t : it corresponds with the t of the
Gaelic dialects, or that of the Italians in the word sotto.
It corresponds with the Sanskrit ?T .
^ is sounded by the Arabs like our th hard, in the
words tkicky thin ; but by the Persians and Indians it is
pronounced like our s in the words skky sin.
flr- is a very strong aspirate, somewhat like our h in the
word hmdy but uttered by compressing the lower muscles
of the throat.
^ has a sound like the ch in the word lochy as pro-
nounced by the Scotch and Irish ; or the final German cA,
in the words schach and Imch.
3 is more dental than the English d : the former is the
Sanscrit ^, the latter is nearer the 5- The d of the Celtic
OF THE 1ȣRSI-ARABIC ALPHABET. O
dialects, and of the Italian and Spanish, corresponds with
the Persian 3 .
b is properly sounded like our th soft, in the words
thy and thine ; but in Persia and India it is generally pro-
nounced like our z in zeal.
J is pronounced like the j of the French, in the word
jour, or our z in the word azure.
Kjo has a stronger or more hissing sound than our s.
In Persia and India, however, there is little or no dis-
tinction between it and (j** .
KJ^ is pronounced by the Arabs like a hard d or dh;
but in Persia and India it is sounded like z.
m
j^ and *> . These letters are sounded, in Persian, like
C-> and J , or very nearly so. The anomalous letter ^ will
be noticed hereafter.
9^ has a sound somewhat like g in the German word
sagen. About the banks of the Tweed, the natives sound
what they fancy to be the letter r, very like the Eastern ^ .
(jf bears some resemblance to our c hard, in the words
cakifty cup; with this difference, that the (Jf is uttered from
the lower muscles of the throat.
w is sounded like our g hard, in give, go; never like
our g in gem, gentk.
(^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is sounded
like our n in the word now: at the end of a, word, when
preceded by a long vowel, it sometimes has a nasal sound,
like the French n, in such words as mon and son, where
o OF THE PERSI-ABABIC ALPHABET.
the effect of the n is to render the vowel nasal, while its
own sound is scarcely perceptible.
2f is an aspirate, like our A in handy heart ; but at the end
of a word, if preceded by the short vowel a (Fatha, §• 4.),
the 2f has no sensible sound, as in a3u dana, ^^a grain"; in
which case it is called ^^^^^ (S^ KcLe-^mukhtafty i. e. the
A, obscure or imperceptible.
a. At the end of words derived from Arabic roots, this letter
is frequently marked with two dots, thus, £; and sounded like the
letter i2J t In such words, when introduced into their language,
the Persians generally convert the i into iZ^; but sometimes they
leave the i unaltered ; and frequently they omit the two dots, in
which case the letter is sounded according to the general rule.
3. Much more might have been said in describing the
sounds of several of the letters ; but we question much
whether the learner would be greatly benefited by a more
detailed description. It is difficult, if not impossible, to
give, in writing, a correct idea of the mere soimd of a
letter, unless we have one that corresponds with it in our
own language. When this is not the case, we can only
have recourse to such languages as happen to possess the
requisite sound. It is possible, however, that the student
may be as ignorant of these languages as of Persian. It
clearly follows, then, as a general rule, that the correct
sounds, of such letters as differ from our own, must be
learned by the ear — ^we may say, by a good ear ; and, con-
sequently, a long description is needless. This remark
applies in particular to the letters C-> ^ ^ 3
9' (jS and the nasal (^ •
( 7 )
OF THE PRIMITIVE VOWELS.
4. The Primitive Vowels in Arabic and Persian are
three, which are expressed by the following simple nota-
tion. The first is called A^ fathay and is written thus, —
over the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound is that
of a short a, such as we have in the word calamus^ which
is of Eastern origin, and of which the first two syllables or
root, coHam or kalamy are thus written, m^ . Dr. Gilchrist,
and several eminent Oriental scholars, have considered the
fatha as equivalent to our short u in the words suriy shun.
We have no hesitation, however, in saying, from our own
experience, that our short u is not generally a true repre-
sentation o/i fatha. In pronouncing the short u of sun^ the
mouth is more shut than in pronouncing the a in the words
calamus and calendar ; and it so happens, that the very
signification of the term fatha is, ^ open.^ In such Oriental
words as we may have occasion to write in Roman cha-
racters, the a, unmarked, is understood always to repre-
sent the vowel /afAa, and to have no other sound than that
of a in calamus or calendar.
6. The second is called ka^sra ^j^y and is thus -^r
written under the consonant to which it belongs. Its
sound is generally that of our short i in the words sip and
finy which in Persian would be written ^^^ and uj^*
Occasionally it has a sound like our short e in the words
bed and fedy which words would be most nearly repre-
sented in Persian as vX^ and vX3. In India, the kasra has
always the sound of our short % : the unmarked ^ therefore.
8 OF THE PRIMITIVE VOWELS.
in the course of this work, is understood to have the sound
of i in ^ and /n, in all Oriental words written in the
Roman character.
6. The third is called zamma or dhamma Ks^^jo), which
is thus — written over its consonant. Its sound is like
that of our short u in the words ptdl and ptishy which in
Persian would be written ^J^. and ^j**^ : we have its sound
also in the words foot and hoody which would be written
C-*3 and <^. Sometimes the zamma has a sound ap-
proaching our short o in the word solemn; and the word
c JL
gofty instead of gufty is sometimes heard with this
sound. We shall, however, represent the zamma by the
unmarked Uy which, in all Oriental words in the Roman
character, is understood to have the sound of u in pull and
push; but never that of our u in such words as use and
perfvmey or such as sun and fun. In Persian, the three
short vowels are also called zahaVy zeVy pesky respectively.
OF THE CONSONANTS 1, ^, j, AND ^.
7. At the beginning of a word or syllable, the letter » >
like any other consonant, depends for its S9und on the
accompanying vowel : of itself, it is a very weak aspirate,
like our h in the words herhy honowy and hour. It is still
more closely identified with the spiritus lenis of the Greek,
in such words as aTo, Iv), o§6og. In fact, when we utter
the syllables aby iby and uby there is a slight movement
of the muscles of the throat at the commencement of
utterance ; and that movement the Oriental grammarians
OF THE . CONSONANTS.
consider to be the jy^ makhraj, or utterance of the
consonant 1, as in ' a, \ 2, and ' w, just the same as the
lips form the makhraj of 6, in the syllables ^ bd, Sr^ bi,
and s-^ bu. Finally, the ' may be considered as the
spiritus knisy or weak aspirate of the letter 3.
8. The consonant ^ has the same relation to the strong
aspirate ^ that \ has to 2f ; that is, the ^, like the i, is a
spintus lenis or weak aspirate ; but the makhraj, or place
of utterance of ^ , is in the lower muscles of the throat.
With this distinction, its sound, as in the case of the
letter » , depends on the accompanying vowel, as c-^ aJ,
C-.AP 'iJ, c-*^ 'uby which, in the mouth of an Arab, are
very different sounds from v— >i aJ, ^\ iby and s-^i ub. At
the same time, it is impossible to explain in writing the true
sound of this letter ; as it is not to be found in any Euro-
ropean language, so far as we know. The student who has
not the advantage of a competent teacher may treat the
9 as he does the ' until he has the opportunity of
learning its true sound by the ear.
9. Of the consonants j and (^ very little description is
necessary. The letter j has generally the sound of our w
in wCy went The modern Persians, particularly those
bordering on the Turks, pronounce the j like our v, as in
the words ^-y-*^ shavam or, more nearly, skevem, and (Si^
shaviy which in Eastern Persia and India are pronounced
shawam and shawi. The sound of the consonant (^ is
exactly our own y in youy yety or the German j in jener.
10 OF THE CONSONANTS.
10. It appears, then, that the thirty-two letters constitating
the Persian Alphabet are all to be considered as consonants j
each of which may be uttered with any of the three
primitive vowels, as v^^ 6a, v^ W, and «— > bu: hence the
elementary sounds of the language consist of ninety-six
syllables, each consonant forming three distinct syllables.
When a consonant is accompanied by one of the three
primitive vowels, it is said to be ^J^ mutaharrik^ that
is, nwvingy or moveable^ by that vowel. Oriental gram-
marians consider a syllable as a step or move in the
formation of a word or sentence. In Persian and Arabic,
the first letter of a word is always accompanied, or
moveable, by a vowel. With regard to the following letters
there is no certain rule. When, in the middle or end of a
word, a consonant is not accompanied by a vowel, it is said
to be ^j;^^^ 5a Am, resting or inert. Thus, in the word
i^y^ mardum the rmrn is moveable by fatha; the re is
inertly having no vowel ; the ddl is moveable by zamma;
and, finally, the mm is inert. The mark -^ or — , called
(^jazmy is placed oyer a consonant, to' shew when it is
inerty as in the word mardum^ where the j (r) and final
/♦ (m) are inert. As a general rule, the last letter of a Per-
sian word is always inert; hence it is not necessary to mark
* I ought to apologize for the employing of this novel term here. In
most Persian and Arabic Grammars, a letter not followed by a vowel is
called quiescent : now, I object to the latter term, as it is apt to mislead the
beginner, it being already applied in English Grammar in the sense of
710^ sounded. For instance, the letter ff is quiescent in the word phlegm ;
we cannot, however, say -that m is quiescent in the same word, though we
may say that it is inert The student will be pleased to bear in mind, then,
that a letter is said to be inert when it is not followed by a vowel.
OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. H
the last letter of a word with the jazm. When a letter is
doubled, the mark ^, called tashdid^ is placed over it.
Thus, in the word CjS^ shid-dat, where the first syllable
ends with 3 (d) and the next begins with 3 (d), instead of
the usual mode C->^*X^, the two dais are united, and the
mark -H- indicates this union. ,
OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION, I , j , AND ^ .
11. The letters Ij j> and 45, when inert, serve to
prolong the preceding vowel, as follows. When I inert
is preceded by a letter moveable by fdtha, the fatha and
aUf together form a long sound like our a in war, or au
in haidy which in Persian might be written jj^ and J^-
Now it so happens, that the I inert is always preceded
by fatha : - hence, as a general and practical rule, alzf
not beginning a word or syllable forms a sound like our a
in fvar, or au in haid. On a similar principle, we may
consider the unaspirated A as a letter of prolongation in
the German words wahr and zaJd. We may also consider
the second a as inert in the words aachen and waai.
12. When the letter j inert is preceded by a conso-
nant moveable by the vowel zamma, the zamma and j
together form a sound like our 00 in tool; which in Persian
might be written Jjj^, or, which is the same thing, like
our u in rwfc, which the Persians would write \j^j. The
same combination forms also another sound, like our in
moky which they would write JJ^, or, perhaps still nearer,
like our oa in coat, which they would write "^jy. In the
Arabic language, the latter sound of j , viz. that of in
12 OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION.
mdley is unknown; hence grammarians eall it Majfud^ or
'Ajamty i.e. the Unknown or Persian j ; whereas the former
^ sound, that of w in rwfe, is called Ma'riif, the Known or
Familiar j . If the letter j be preceded by a consonant
moveable by fatha, the /atha and j united will form a
diphthong, nearly like our au in sound, or cw in towuj but
more exactly like the au in the German word kaumy which
in Persian or Arabic might be written /^. If the j be
preceded by the vowel kasra, no union takes place, and
the J preserves its ^ atural sound as a consonant, as in the
word ]y^ siwa. Itt English, the w is a letter of prolon-
gation in many words, as drawy crow, &c.; it also con-
tributes to the formation of a diphthong, as in tawny
gowny &c,
a. When the letter . is preceded by ^ moveable hj/atheif and
followed by I , the sound of • is scarcely perceptible ; as in the word
^1^5 pronounced kkdhamy not khawaham. This rule, however,
applies only to words purely Persian; never to those borrowed
from the Arabic language, which are very numerous.
b. In like manner, when • preceded by • moveable by fcEthoj
and sometimes by zamma or kdzroy is followed by any of the
letters u-^, *^>jyJ9 Ljr> lj*> u* ^» ^^ t^> *^® 5 occasionally loses its
usual sound, as in the word O*^, pron. khad, not khaud or khawad;
80 in i>^, pron. khud, not khud; also in (h1ju^» pron. kMshy not
khiwesh. This rule also applies only to words purely Persian ; and,
as it is by no means general, the student must ascertain the pronun-
ciation in such cases from a Dictionary of standard authority ; such
as Professor Johnson's edition of Richardson, 4to. London, 1329.
\h. When the letter cf inert is preceded by a conso-
c
OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. 13
nant moveable by ktzsray the kasra and the (S unite, and
form a long vowel, like our ee in feel^ which in Persian
might be written ^j4^ ; or, which is the same thing, like
our i in macMney which in Persian would be written
-i-o. The same combination may also form a sound
like our ea in heaVy which would be written^^, or like
the French e in the words fete and fete; or the German e
followed by h in the words sehr, gelehrt. In the Arabic
language, the latter sound of iS is unknown : hence, when
the lS forms the sound of ea in beavy &c., it is called
Yde Majhuly or yae ^Ajamt, that is, the Unknown or Persian
C5; whilst the former sound — that of ee mfeely or i in
machine — is called Yde Ma'rufy the Known or Familiar cf •
When the letter iS inert is preceded by a consonant,
moveable hyfathay ihe/atha and the iS unite, and form a
diphthong, like ai in the German word Kaisevy which in
Arabic and Persian is written^;^^^^^^ . This sound is really
that of our own i in wisey sizey which we are pleased to
call a vowel, but which, in reality, is a genuine diphthong.
When the cf restant is preceded by zamnuiy no union
takes place, and the cf retains its usual sound as a conso-
nant, as in the wordj-iJ^* muyassar. In English, the
letter ^ is a letter of prolongation in the words say and
key; it also contributes to the formation of a diphthong in
the word bm/y which in Persian might be written ^ .
•* ♦
14. It appears, then, from what we have stated, that the
Persian language has ten vocal sounds; viz. 1st, Three
short or prinUtive vowels, as in the syllables Jo bM;
Jo bid; Ju bud, pronounced bood. 2dly, Three d)rre-
14 OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION.
spending long vowels, formed by introducing the homo-
geneous letters of prolongation immediately after the
preceding short vowels, as in 3u bad, Osx} bid, J>aJ bud.
3dly, Two diphthongs, as in vXiJ baid, the at pronounced
like our i in abide ; and ^^ baudy the au pronounced like
our ou in loud. 4thly, The two long vowels, peculiarly
Persian, or Majhul, as JI^ bSl, pronounced like the En-
glish word bail, andjjij rdz, pronounced very nearly like
the English word rose.
15. It must be observed, that there are very few Persian
works, manuscript or printed, in which all the vowels are
marked as we have just described. The primitive short
vowels are almost always omitted, as well as the marks
^jazm and Jil tashdid; nor is the omission of any conse-
quence to the natives and those who know the language.
To the young beginner, however, in this country, it is
essential to commence with books having the vowels care-
fully marked ; otherwise, he will contract a vicious mode
of pronunciation, which he will find it difficult afterwards
to unlearn. At the same time, it is no easy matter in
printing to insert all the vowel-points &c. in a proper
and accurate manner. In the present work, a medium
will be observed, which, without ever crowding the text
with marks, will suffice Ho enable the learner to read with-
out any error, provided he will attend to the following
rules.
16. In the first place, — ^the last letter of every word
(as already mentioned, §.10.) is inert: hence the mark
OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. 15
±-jazm is in that case dispensed with : when there is an
exception to this rule, as in the formation of the genitive
case, the last letter will be marked with the requisite
vowel. Secondly, the letters ', j, and (^, not initial, are
generally inert ; hence, they are not in such cases marked
with ihejazm : whenever J and c^*, not initial, are moveable
consonants, they are marked with the requisite vowels.
Thirdly, to distinguish between the majhut and ma'ruf
sounds of J and (^, the following rule is observed. When
J and (^ follow a consonant, unmarked by a short vowel
or jazniy they are understood to have the majhul sound, or
that of and e respectively, as in jy^ mory " an ant," and
jtS*^ sheTy ^^ a lion." If, on the other hand, the consonant
preceding j have the vowel -^, and that preceding iS
«•
the vowel — , they have the ma'ruf sound, or that ofuin
rule and i in machine respectively, as in the words ^^
sudy ^^gain," andjJk^, shtry "milk": and if the preceding
consonant be marked with jazniy J and c5 are consonants.
Fourthly, the short vowel /atha -^ is of more frequent
occurrence than the other two: hence it is omitted in
the printing; and the learner is to supply it for every
consonant except thfe last, provided he see no other
vowel, nor the mark jazm accompanying any of the
consonants aforesaid. The vowel fatha is written before
the letters j and (S when they form diphthongs, as in
(^ kauniy " a tribe," sxidji^ sair (pronounced like the
English word sire)y " a walk." According to this method,
the ten vocal sounds will be uniformly represented as
follows, both in the Persian text, and in such Persian
words as we may have occasion to write in Roman
16 OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION.
characters. 1st, Three short vowels,^ bar, ^^ bin
sur. 2dly, Three corresponding long, jy bar, ujjO bin,
jy^ sur. 3dly, Two diphthongs, ^;Xyj scUr, ^^ kaum.
4thly, The two sounds called Mqjhuly not used in Arabic,
J>t> bel,jjj r6ss.
17. The letters I and ^ beginning a word or syllable,
form, according to our notions, an initial vowel ; although
the Orientals deny the possibility of such a thing : thus —
i\ ■ i\\ or :>\ Jo) ^,1 . Jo\
4;
Jo\ ^j^
ad id
•
ud; ad Id ud ; aid
or.
aud;
ed od ;
a&
^^'
'ad
'id 'ud; *ad Id 'ud ;
'aid.
'aud.
Instead of writing two alifs at the beginning of a word,
as in -^n ady it is usual (except in Dictionaries) to write
one alif with the other curved over it ; thus, ^ . This
symbol — is called ^vXo madduy " extension," and denotes
that the aMf is sounded long, like our a in water.
a. The learner will recoUect, that the sounds commencing with
c must be uttered with the lower muscles of the throat In other
respects he may view the I and & in any of the three following
lights. Ist, He may consider them of the same value as the spiriius
lenis (') in such Greek words as dv, ev, &c. 2dly, He may consider
them as equivalent to the letter h in the English words hxmr, herb,
honour, &c. Lastly, be may consider them as mere blocks, where-
upon to place the vowels requisite to the formation of the syllable.
Practically speaking, tben, I and c when initiaU and ^ and ^ when
not initial, require the beginner's strictest attention, as they all
contribute in such cases to the formation of several sounds.
OF THE SYMBOL HAMZA. H
6. It further appears, that when, in Persian, a word or syllable
begins with what we consider to be a vowel, such words or syllables
must have the letter I or & to start with. Throughout this work,
when we have occasion to write such words in the Roman character,
the corresponding place of the c will be indicated by an apostrophe
or spirUus lenis ; thus, Jmac ''asaly Jjlc ^abid^ a^ 6a'(/, to distinguish
the same from JumI osqI^ c^ abidj jj badj d\} bad.
18. When one syllable of a word ends with a vowel,
and, according to our ideas of orthography, the following
syllable begins with, a vowel, that is, virtually, with an
\ in Persian, the mark -^ (sometimes ^) ham%a is used
instead of the \ ; thus, /|l> pd-e, instead of (^i\$ ; 2fv>5vd
fa-idah, instead of 2f3]U.
a. The sound of the mark hamza^ according to the Arabian
Grammarians, differs in some degree from the letter I, being some-
what akin to the letter C) which its shape ^ would seem to warrant;
but in Persian this distinction is overlooked. According to the
strict rule, the hamza ought to be used whenever a syllable,
beginning with a vowel, is added to a root, in the way of inflexion
or derivation, as j>j JjtJ didem, " we saw,'''' from ,yj() ; f/Jyj bad-if
** badnessy^ from jj bad ; but this rule is seldom or never observed.
Practically speaking, then, in Persian the hamza in the middle of a
word is nearly of the samd import as our hyphen (with which it
may be represented in the Roman characters), in such words as
re-operii which in the Persian character might be written ^Ji.
At the end of words terminating with the imperceptible h «, or ^c,
the hamza has the sound of e or i, long or short, as will be observed
hereafter.
+19. As words arid phrases from the Arabic laiiguage
enter very freely into Persian composition, we cannot well
D
18 OF THE ABABIC ARTICLE '•AL."
omit the following remarks. Arabic nomis have frequently
the definite article J^ (the) of that language prefixed to
them ; and if the noim happens to begin with any of the
thirteen letters, C^, vi>, ^, ^' jO' U**' U*^' ^-^' ^'
)oy)by or [^y the \J of the article assumes the sound of the
initial letter of the noun, which is then marked with tashdid;
thus, jyJl the lights pronounced an-nuru, not cd-nuru. But
in these instances, although the J has lost its own soimd, it
must always be written in its own form. Of course, when
the noun begins with J, the J of the article coincides
with it in like manner, as in the words sX^\ al-laUatu,
'^ the night" ; and in this case the J of the article is some-
times omitted, and the initial lam of the noun marked by
tashdidy as &)aJt al-laUatu.
a. We have already noticed (page 6) the anomalous character i,
which is common in Arabic derivatives, and sounded like the letter
CL^, into which it is often changed in Persian* The thirteen letters,
iZJ &c., above mentioned, together with the letter J, are, by the
Arabian Grammarians, called solar or sunny letters, because, for-
sooth, the word ^M^^yft shams, <^the snn,'' happens to begin with
one of them. The other letters of the Arabic alphabet are called
lunar, because, we presume, the word^^ kamar ^^the moon" begins
with one of the number, or simply because they are not solar. Of
course, the captious critic might find a thousand equally valid
reasons for caUing them by any other term, such as gold and silvery
black and blue, &c. ; but we merely state the fact as we find it.
+ 20. In general, the Arabic nouns of the above descrip-
tion, when introduced into the Persian language, are in
a state of construction with another substantive which
OF THE SYMBOLS WA8LA AND TANWIN. 19
precedes them ; like our Latin terms ^'jus gentium^' ^^ vis
inerti(Sy' &c. In such cases^ the last letter of the first or
governing word is moveable by the vowel zamma, which
serves for the enunciation of the I following ; and, at the
same time, the 1 is marked with the symbol — , called
&Ldj wasUy to denote such union ; as in the words
Ujy^J^'jttt' Amir-'Ul'mumimn, "Commander of the Faith-
ful ;" idjM\ JU5) Ikhalrud-daula, " The dignity of the state."
a. Arabic nouns occasionally occur in Persian having their final
letters marked with the symbol called tanwin, which signifies the
using of the letter ^. The tanwm, which in Arabic grammar
serves to mark the inflexions of a noun, is formed by doubling the
vowel-point of the last letter, which indicates at once its presence
and its sound ; thus, L^b babun^ L^b babin, bb baban. The last
form requires the letter I, which does not, however, prolong the
sound of the final syllable. The I is not required when the noun
ends with a hamza or the letter S, as ^Ji, shai-arif iuX»- hikmatan ;
or when the word ends in Ac ya^ surmounted by I (in which case the
I only is pronounced), as J^tXfc hudan. In words ending in ^^, sur-
mounted by I , without the tanwin or nunation, the alif is sounded
like the a2j^ of prolongation, as IJbo ta'aldy J^ ^ukbd, &c.
- 21. The eight letters, wt^? ^? ijo, ;jo, L, lb, 6 , and ^y
are peculiar to the Arabic language : hence, as a general
rule, a word containing any one of these letters may be
considered as borrowed from the Arabic: and should it
include the long vowels J or c5*, they cannot have the
majhul sound, except it be the lS (e) of unity (of which
more hereafter) added at the end. The four letters \^y ^,
J , and L^y are not used in the Arabic language : hence, a
•
20 EXERCISES FOB BEADING AND WBinNG.
word in which any one of them occurs may be considered
as purely Persian. The remaming twenty letters are com-
mon to both languages.
The three following Stories are intended as an Exercise in
Reading and Writing for the Learner. The first is given hoth in
the Persian and Roman characters. The second is given in the
Pe):sian character alofiie ; and the Learner is to turn the same into
the corresponding English letters. The third is in the Roman
character ; which the Student, by a little attention to all that has
preceded) ought to turn into the proper Persian character. It is
essential that he should be able to read the latter fluently, before
he proceeds further with this work. A Literal Translation is added
to each.
Before commencing, however, the Learner had better reconsider
all that has gone before, and be sure that he thoroughly recoUects the
meaning of the following symbols : -^, -7-, .£., ji_, ji_, JL, I and I,
as well as the different sounds which 19^,^ and 1^ contribute to
form.
STORY L
%-*
*
THE SAME IN ROHAN CHARACTERS.
Roze Khusru Parwiz ki Shirin zauja-i mahbiiba-i biid, guft,
khush chize ast Id badshahi da*im biide. Shirin guft, agar da-im
bude batd naraside.
TRANSLATION.
One day, Khusru Parwiz, whose beloved wife was Shirin, said,
"What a pleasant thing it were if Royalty were everlasting!'^
«
■i.<
K
Ik'
I
' EXERCISES FOR READING AND WRITING. 21
W I Shiiin said, " If it had been everlasting, it would not have come
/ ^ 1 " to thee."
V\* N.B. Observe, that the final X (vide p. 6) in the words a^.
»-^l, &c«, having no perceptible sound, is omitted in the Roman
character.
■* *
\l "•* STORY II. — TO BE TURNED INTO THE ROMAN. CHARACTER.
,t
Uj^
»m •
^ ~ ^ ^
4^ y 4^ ^
l.«^ — CM«»\sr «jU. t,.,.*>U> &£9 vX'tjf^ 2L5CjU^
-^ ^
Kj \* \* ^^
— v>i1 «JLi, ^oU*« ,*-X*i6\sff /j^ Ui^ «^= "^y^
c c
j^) v^ '-:^**^— *^' «J^^ tyjj^ '■^^^ iJi^*
TRANSLATION.
A man went, for the purpose of seeing a certain person, to his
house, at the time of the midday meal. That person, in his own
house, saw this man coming. He said to his servants, ^^ When he
asks where the master of the house is, you will say that he is now
gone to dine with some one." In the mean while, the man having
arrived, asked, "Where is the master of the house?" They siud.
22 EXERCISES FOE EEADIN6 AND WBITING.
^^He is just this moment gone out." The man said, "A rare
fool he is, to have gone out of his house at such a sultry hour."
The master of the house, putting his head out of the window, sidd,
^^ You are a fool, to wander ahout at this time. I am comfortably
reposing in my own house."
STORY III. — ^TO BE TURNED INTO THE PERSIAN CHARACTER.
Dihkane khare dasht Az sababi bekhaiji, khar ra bara-e charidan
babaghe sar midad. Mardumani bagh khar ra mizadand wa, az
zara at ba dar mikardand. Roze dihkan posti sher ra bar khar bast
wa guft "wakti shab bara-e charidan tu bar a-i, wa, awaz makun.^
Hamchunan bar shab ba posti sher an khar babagh miraft. Hark!
ba shab midid^yakin midanist ki in sher ast. Shabe baghban ora
did, wa az tars bar bala-e darahkte raft. Dar asna-e an, khare digar
ki dar an nazdiki bud awaz kard, wa khari dihkan niz ba awaz dar
amad, wa bang.zadan misli kharan girift. Baghban ora shinakht wa
danist ki in kist. Az darakht farod «mad, wa an khar ra bisyar lat
bazad. Az inja khiradmandan gufta and ki ^^ kharan ra khamoshi
bib."
TRANSLATION.
A certain villager had an ass, which, for the sake of economy,
he used to let loose in a certain garden, for the purpose of grazing.
The people of the garden used to beat the beast, and drive him from
the cultivated ground. One day, the villager &stened a lion's skin
on the ass, and said (so goes the story) : << At the time of night,
you go forth to graze, and do not make a noise.'' Even so,
every night, in, the lion''s skin, the ass used to go into the garden:
whoever saw him by night, used to think for certain that it wats a lion.
One night the gardener ^w him, and from fear he went up into a
tree. In the mean time, another ass, which was in that neighbour^
hood, made a noise ; and the ass of the villager also raised his voice,
and began to bray, just like any other donkey* The gardener
recognised him, and knew what he was. He came down from the
tree, and gave the ass a sound beating with a stick. — On this
subject the wise have said, '^ For the ass's silence is best."
NUMERICAL VALUE OF THE LETTERS 23
In turning the preceding story into the Persian character, the
student will observe, that t, s, z, k and A, are to be turned into ci^,
^j*., J, c3 and Sby respectively ; the exceptions being the A: of dihkan,
which is r, and the s ofmisli, which is cij. The combinations chj
khi shi and ghj are ^ » -f- > i/* » *^d d , respectively. He will of
course attend to the iniltah medial^ and final forms of the letters,
according to circumstances. Let him also remember, that every
letter must be joined in the same word to the one following it on
the left, except I, 4>, ^fjyjfjf and ^; after any of which there
is a blank, and the next letter is of the initial form*
+22. We may here mention, that the twenty-eight
letters of the Arabic language are also used (chiefly in
recording the dates of historical events) for the purpose of
Numerical computation. The Numerical order of the
Letters, however, in this case, differs from that given in
the Alphabet ; being, in fact, the identical arrangement of
the Hebrew, so far as the lattei: extends, viz. to the letter
O, 400. The following is the order of the Numerical
Alphabet with the corresponding number placed above
each letter ; the whole being grouped into eight unmean-
ing words, to serve as a memoria technica.
o
oSS oSS S ooo oooo . oooo
where t denotes one, v^ two^ ^ three, i four, &c.
a. In reckoning, by the preceding system, the four letters
peculiaVly Persian (21), viz. u^^ -_, j and li/, have the same value
as their pognate Arabic letters of which they are modifications, that
is, of i«j, 'Tf j> ^^^ ^f respectively. The mode of recording any
event is, to form a brief sentence, such„ that the numerical values of
24 PRINCIPAL KINDS OP HAND-WRTTING/
all the letters, when added together, amount to the year (of the Hijri)
in which the event took place. Thus, the death of Ahli of Shiraz,
who may be considered as the last of the Classic Poets of Persia*
happened in A. H. 942. This date is recorded in the sentence
Jlftl 4>y t^ sltt>U^ i.e. ^^Ahli was the king of poets;** which at
the same time contains a high compliment to the merits of the
deceased. The foUowing date, on the death of the renowned Hyder
Ali of Maisur (A.H. 1196), is equally elegant, and much more
poetic. The reader will bear in mind that Bdlaghat, is the scene of
one of Hyder's most celebrated rictories ; hence the appropriateness
of the following well-chosen expression :
" The spirit of Balaghat is gone.''
b. In Arabia and Persia, the art of printing is as yet very
little used : hence their books, as was once the case in Europe, are
written in a variety of different hands. Of these, the most common
^ • .
are, Ist, the Naskhi L^ae***^> of which the type employed in the two
Stories, pages 20 and 21, is a very good imitation. Most Arabic
Manuscripts, and particularly those of the Koran, are in this hand ;
and from its compact form, it is generally used in Europe for
printing books in the Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Hindustani
languages. 2dly, The TdUk ^^Aj6 , a beautifril hand, used chiefly
by the Persians in disseminating copies of their more-esteemed
authors. In India, the Ta'lik has been extensively employed for
printing, botl^ in Persian and Hindustani; and within the last
twenty years, a few Persian works, in the same hand, have issued
from the Pasha of Egypt's press at Bulak. 3dly, The Shikasta
Awvmi, or broken hand, which is used in correspondence. It is quite
irregular, and unadapted for printing ; but not inelegant in appear-
ance, when properly written. For a more ample account of this
subject, see "Essai de Calligraphie Orientale," in the Appendix
to Herbin's " Developpements des Principes de la Langue Arabe,"
4to. Paris, 1803.
( 25 )
SECTION IL
ON SUBSTANTIVES, ADJECTIVES, AND PRONOUNS.
23. It is considered by the Grammarians of Arabia and
Persia that there are only Three Parts of Speech — the
C C
Noun j^\ Ism, the Verb ,Jje Fi7, and the Particle
Harf. Under the term Noun, they include Substantives,,
Adjectives, Pronouns, Participles, and Infinitives : their
Verb agrees in its nature with ours ; and their Particle
includes Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter-
jections.
a. In the present work we shall of course adhere to that division
of the Parts of Speech which is followed in the Latin Grammar,
with which the Student is supposed to be acquainted.
OF gei4der.
24. In the Persian language, the Gender of Nouns
agrees exactly with that of the same Part of Speech in
English ; males being masculine, females feminine, and all
other words neuter.
a. Animals have either different names to express male and fe-
male ; as, j^ fisar^ " a son"; J^^ dukktarj " a daughter'* : or the
terms ^ nar (male), and 5^U mada (female), added or prefixed,
serve the same purpose; as, J^ sher-i-naVi "a lion," »^U>2i sheri^
tnadot "a lioness"; so, .\^ nar-gdw, "a bull," j\?5^U mada-gaw,
" a cow/'
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL NUMBER
25. In Persian there are two Numbers — ^the Singular
and the Plural. As a general rule. Masculines and Femi-
. E
26 FORMATION OF PLUBALS.
nines form the Plural, by adding (j » an to the Singular ;
and inanimate objects, or Neuters, form the Plural, by
adding \i^ hd; asjjy^^^jdnwar/^ammal/' pltur. (j^j^^V
mnwardn ; y/^ chzz, " a thing,*' plur. ^ji^ chtzhd.
a. This simple and general rnle is subject to some modification,
which may beiexpressed as follows: — ^Names applicable to persons,
and epithets d^seriptiy^ of rational beings, make the plural almost
inyariably in ^j^\ ; as, ^ mard, ** man," pi. ^^^ marddn, " men'^ ;
^ zan, " a woman," pL ^\S: xanaUy •' women" ; *u.*^^ J^ dil-firebf
" an allurer of hearts,* pL ^U^ J^ dU-firehan. Names of animals
not rational, form the plural, generally, by adding ^\—} but often by
\jb ; as, (..,,a*j3\ asp, ** a horse," pL ^bu4\ aspan $ Jws skutur, " a camel*"
^l"^ 9 9
pL mIj^ ihvi^titan^ or U^ shuturha, '* camels." Names of inanimate
objects add U generally, sometimes ^\— ; as, JJ kalam^ ''a pen,"
pL \^ kalamha, ** pens" ; vl^> darakht, ** a tree," pL I^ap^^
darakhta, '* trees," and sometimes ^J^J^.
b. When nouns ending in the obscure h t (page 6) have occasion
to add ^\— » the s is converted into ^; as, gjixS firishioy *'an angel,"
/^ « .
pi. .Vftjq/' firiaktagan, *' angels" : and sometimes the s is retained,
.^^^
with the (; as, s^ ''dead," pi. ^\$9^. When such nouns haye
occasion to add U, the final b of the singular disappears; as,
ft^U nama, "a book or letter," pL \^\j namahd. When nouns
ending in \ (a) or j (« or o) have occasion to add ^\ — , the letter
^tf (y) is inserted, to avoid a hiatus; as, \3b ddndf ** & sage,"
P^- i:)^.^^^ ddndydn; so,^<^ pari-ru, "fairy-faced," pL ^\j»J ^g^
pari-ruyan, ** the fairy-faced ones" : and sometimes, though rarely,
the letter ^^ is omitted after j; as,j:b "the arm," pL mUjV ^^<^^^
or 6a2rutoan.
GENITIVE CASE. 27
c. Arabic nouns sometimes fonn their plurals according to rules
peculiar to that language) which will be briefly noticed in the
Appendix.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
26. Persian Nouns undergo no change corresponding
to the various Cases of the Greek and Latin. The term
Case however is here retained^ as it forms the simplest
means for explaining how the various relations of Sub-
stantives are e^ressed in this language.
The Oenitive or Possessive Case is formed by the juxta-
position of two substantives ; where the regimen, or thing
possessed^ comes always firsts having its final letter sounded
with the vowel kasra (i) — called oiUij^a^^Xa^a-t
Izdfat, '^The kasra of relationship^'; — thus, lli)U -«-^
^ ^ ^
pisar^-malik, ^'The son of the king (filius regis)"" ; so
(iiJ^j^ ^\m kitdb'i pisar-i malik] " The book of the
son of the king {liber Jilii regis)." If the governing word
ends in the long vowels 1 (a) or j {u or o), instead of these
letters beinjg followed by the ka^^a (or short i), as above,
the letter iS (majhul) with the mark hamza (§.18.) is
used ; as, 3}* 4^ V^ po-c mard, '* The foot of the man ^' ;
j^ L5L3J ^^ pisar, " The face of the boy.'' If the
governing word ends with the obscure s (A), or the long
vowel i^ (I or e\ the mark hamza, with the vowel kasra
(expressed or understood) is used ; as, J^J^^wW khdna-i
mard, '^ The house of the man '' ; \ij^ ^ ^^vo mafu-i daryd,
'' The fish of the sea.''
28 DATIVE, AND ACXJU8ATIVE.
a. In English we form the Possessive Case in two ways; thus,
*' The king^s son,^ or " The son of the king** : the latter mode
agrees exactly with that of the Persian; and the vowel koira &c.
(i &C.), added to the governing word in Persian, corresponds to the
particle of in EngHsL Hence, in turning English into Persian,
should a complex string of words related to each other in the geni-
tive case occur, the student has, in the first place, to resolve the same
in his mind into that form of the genitive case which is made by the
particle of in Englbh ; then convert them into Persian in the very
same order, inserting the proper marks of the izafat. Thus, to
assume an extreme case, we shall suppose the student has to express
in Persian, " The colour of the king of Iran^s horse's head/* Let
him, in the first place, endeavour to express the pkdn meaning of
the phrase in English, by the aid of the particle of alone ; thus,
" The colour of the head of the horse of the king of Iran**: then
the Persian will easily follow; as, ^S\ j\j5>3b t^y4\ -d i^^.
rang-i sar-i anp-i bad-shah'i Iran ; the order being the same.
6. The words ^..^^lo sahtb^ denoting " possesisor,** and^ sar^
denoting '' source,** when united with another word, generally omit
the Jeasra ; as, J^ ^..^^lo satub-dil, ** a sage** (homme d'esprit) ; so
^\fCjJi sar maya, " the source of wealth," or " capital in trade.**
27. Dative and Accusative, &c. — ^The syllable U is added
to a noun, when it stands in that relation to a verb which
corresponds with the Dative or Accusative of the Latin ;
as, jOOi^uTijJ^J^* mardra kitab dddam (viro librum dedi),
'^ I gave the book to the man''; (^^^ l)V^ aspra dldam
(equum vidi), " I saw the horse'': but the Dative is fre-
quently formed by the Preposition A^, instead of the affix \j ;
and the Accusative is often the same as the Nominative,
as will be more fully shewn in the Syntax. — The Vocative
VOCATIVE, AND ABLATIVE.
29
is formed, as in English, by placing some Inteijection
before the Nominative ; as, ^ ^1 Ai mard ! '' O man ! ''
In poetry, and also in prose compositions denoting prayer
or supplication, the Vocative is frequently formed by
addmg i a to the Nominative ; as, "^^j^ bulbula ! '' O night-
ingale ! '' 1X^*5^ dosta ! '' O friend ! ''— The Ablative is
formed, as in English, by prefixing the Prepositions j» az,
''from'' or ''by/' j-3 dar, "in," &c., to the Nominative;
as, ^j^ y CLZ mard J "from the man" ; w\>'j3 dar khana,
'^ in the house." — The Cases of the Plural Number are
formed exactly in the same way.
28. To conform with the mode of European Grammars,
we shall add two examples of the Declension of a Persian
Noun.
3}« Mard, " Man."
SINGULAR.
Nom. ^ mard; vir, man," **the man/'
Gen.^y«-^ i-mard; riri," of man," &c.
Dat. \j ^j^ mard-ra; viro, ** to ^man."
Ace. \j ^jc mard-ra; virum, ^^man."
Voc. ^j^fj\ ai mard; vir, " O man ! '*
Abl. ^J^ az mard; viro, "from man."
PLUaAL.
^^^ marddn ; viriy " men.
»»
t' »i
^^^ — i-mardon ; virorum*' of men.
V {J^^j^ marddn-ra; viris, "to men."
\j ^^^j^ mardan-ra ; viros, " men.'*
^\^ ^j\ ai marddn; viHy " O men ! "
^J^^J^ j^ az marddn; wm,**from men."
* The symbol -j- before the Genitive Case merely indicates the place of
the governing word, the last letter of which must have the vowel -r-
(* or {ji)^ as explained in Sect 26.
30 ABTICLK.
Nom. s^\)f kUab, 'a book,"* "the book.
Gen. u->lir-;r- t-iW5ft,"ofabooL**
D&t W^ kimb-ra, " to a book.*
Ace ], V^ ki^Ihra, " the boot**
Vocu-^UTt^^ £» *i/56/'0 book r
AbL u^Ur:^ OiS him/* from a boc^**
miGVLAB. FLVBAIi.
^^— ukitabha," KXXtoAa."
\U^ Hfabkortu, "to bmAs."
)}^^ ktmbJia-ra, " books."
^^llT^^t aikimbJia, '^O hooks r
\^^j\ ozM^Aa/' from books.'
0. In. like maimer may be dedined every Substantive in the
Persian language. The only questions are, in the first place,
whether — , ^c, or *, will be used as the rign of the izdfat or
Genitive Case; which is easily solved by the rule laid down in Sect 26;
the choice depending on the last syllable of the preceding or
governing word; and, secondly, whether ^\ or U is to be added
in the plural, which is decided by a careful perusal of Sect 25.
29. In Persian, there is no word corresponding exactly
to our Definite Article the ; so that common names, as
y^ mardf may signify " man,'' or ^' the man,'' according
to circumstances^ which the context will generally in-
dicate. A common substantive in the singular number,
however, is restricted to unity, by adding the lettter (^
(majhul) to it ; as, (^j^ mard-e, *' one man," or *^ a cer-
tain man."
a. The same letter, (^, added to nouns (plural as well as sin-
gular), followed by the particle «^ indicating a relative clause pf a
sentence, seems to have the effect of our definite article; thus,
^ "^
iS>\ fJ!JJ /^J^ ^y^ a/jjUy " The (or Those) persons who in
^ ••
power are my superiors."" — Anwari Suhaili, Book III. So in the
ADJECTIVES. 31
following passage from Sa'di's Gulistan, Book L : j.. j^^c^bf
j^ <Ay^ ?^ ciAd ** '^^ ^^ That) fool who in bright day sets
up (bums) a camphor candle." Sometimes the (^ majhul added
to a noun gives it a sense of excess or universality; as in Hafiz,
iZM^\f^\^^i^ " Love is one (excessive) calamity^: so, ilP' " The
whole world'' : Sj^ " The whole nation or people/' Words ending
in the obscure ^ add a hamza, instead of the ^s {majhH) ; as,
»d3l>- khana-^, "one house"; where the hamza has the same sound
as the (^ which it represents.
OF ADJECTIVES.
30. Persian Adjectives are indeclinable; and in con-
struction^ they follow the substantives which they qualify ;
at the same time^ the last letter of the substantive must
have the kctsra -^ {or iS , ox ^) superadded^ as in the
formation of the Genitive Case (§. 26.) : thus, ^HX^ ^j^
mard-i nek^ ^a, good man'^; jU^j^ ^umr-i damz, "a
long life'* ; ^^ ^^j rS-e khvb^ ** a fair face'* ; >«v^
jbvij banda-e-wafaddrj '^a faithftil slave.** The only
variation which Persian Adjectives undergo is that of
comparison, in which respect they very much resemble
the same part of speech in English. The Comparative
Degree is formed regularly, by adding to the Positive the
syllable •i> tar; and the Superlative, by adding uyij^ tarln:
thus, H-J^ khub, '^fair,*' j^^ Jchub-tar, *' fairer/*
c ^
Mij^^ khub-tarm, '' fairest**
cu The terminations J and ^3 may be joined to the Adjective,
32
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
or written separately, at pleasure : thus, in the above example, we
might write ji> UJU^ s^d ^^^ ^j^«
6. When an Arabic adjective occurs in Persian, it is compared
c
frequently in the preceding manner ; as, ^y^ " excellent,^
" more exceUent,^ &c. : but sometimes the comparison is effected as
in Arabic ; thus, y^\ ''more or most excellent^ ; * and occasionally
we meet with both forms united, asJLcJ\* When an adjective is
used as a noun, it forms the plural in accordance with the sub-
stantive represented; as, ^JS^ **the good,** ^oVj^ "^® fair,^'&c.;
\jb^b ''things given,^ from the participle }^b ddda.
OF PRONOUNS.
31, The Personal Pronouns are the foUowmg :
SINGULAR.
FBRS. NOMINATIVE.
1 <* r
1. /«^ tnan, i.
2. y tu, " thou.
9>
"ahe.
JVcjjf. ^J^ on, "it," "that."
ACCUBATIVB & DATIVE.
\y^ mara^ me, to me.
]^ tyrOy " thee, '* to thee.**
' him,'* " her,* or
\f^^ waira, j '* to him," " to her.'
\f\ anra, it, or to it
ii^^ ora.
•a »
PLURAL.
1. U
9na, me.
2. L^ MMi»a, 'you."
3. JJi^\ e«A5n,|"they,"or
JVcd^. l^\ anha^ J " those."
\j.
US, to us.
I V.^ you, to yoa
^lli\ ) " them," " to them."
" those," " to those."
w^ 1
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 33
a. The inflection of the personal pronouns differs in no respect
from that of nouns ; the words \y« and \3 heing clearly contractions
of Uxc and VjJ. They all form the Genitive Case, like the suh-
stantives, hy placing the governing word, with the sign of the
izafaJt^ before the nominatives (sing, or plur.) of the pronouns ; as,
^ J Jj padar-i man, ** my father* ; y ^^.^t>^\ asp-i tu, ** thy horse **" ;
•\ {^\Si' kitabi o, "his or her hook'^; ^\ d^t^ kimat-ian, "its
price**; U ^»il>. khana-e ma, " our house" &c. The second per-
son forms the Vocative by prefixing an interjection; as, J (^^ at tu,
** O thou !** The first and third persons cannot, in their nature, have
a Vocative, without virtually becoming the second person. They
all form the Ablative by prefixing the simple prepositions :\^ j^> V^
&c. to the Nominative ; as, ^ j^ az man, " from me" ; y\j bd tu,
" with thee" ; ^\j> bar o, * on him" ; ^^\j^ dor an, " in it"
32. Besides the regular inflexions of the Personal Pro-
nouns^ there are certain contracted forms or affixes, which,
when joined to nouns or verbs, may denote the Genitive,
Dative, or Accusative Case. These are, j^ am, for the
1st person ; CJ— aiy for the 2d ; and (j*>-^ ash, for
the 3d ; as, J^ dil-am, '' my heart '^ ; CJj^ sar-at, '' thy
head^'; ^J5S-*^ dast-ash, *'his hand'^: but the expla-
nation of these, as well as of the Reciprocal Pronoun
3^ khtid, or uH>^ **^** (§-12- b.% ''self,'' or "selves,**
belongs more properly to the section on Sjmtax.
33. The Demonstrative or Adjective Pronoims are,
f^\ m, " this '' or " these/' and ^\ an, '' that '' or those.''
As Adjectives, they are indeclinable, and applicable to all
34 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
genders and numbers ; thus, 3yo ^^1 m fward, '' this man^' ;
tl)^-^ /^» m mar dan, ''these men^^; ^^J^jj)* 5/i kitab,
''that book^'; ^?^ (j' an kitdbhd, "those books.
When used as the representatives of nouns^ they form
the plural, in the same manner as the noim for which
they stand ; thus, j^W^ indn, " these '' or " they,'' if
applicable to persons ; and ^aJi inAa, " these'' or "they/'
when referring to inanimate things ; and in like manner
^\ and \l^\ "those" or "they."
34. The Interrogative Pronouns are &^ Id (Dative and
Accusative, ^S kird), " who ? " " whom ? " and &^ chi
(Dative and Accusative, \j^ chird), "what V "which ?"
They are applicable to both numbers ; the former gene-
rally relating to persons, and the latter to things. To
these may be added, /^0o kuddm, " Which of two ? '' or
" Which out of • any number ? '' Oo>^ chandf " how
many?" also, " some " or " several," which are equaUy
applicable to persons and inanimate things. When ^
and &^ are added to the word ^ har or {*)l/^ har-^n,
they correspond to oiu: who-, what-, or whichsoever ; as,
A^^ harki, or A-XJIj-* hardnkh " whosoever," &c. Fi-
nally, io and ^ are sometimes used as substitutes for the
Relative Pronouns, of which more hereafter.
a. The Persian language, like the Arabic, generally dispenses
99
i
I
THE VERB.
35
with, or rather does not possess, a relative pronoun exactly similar
to the qui, qu<R, quod of the Latin. For instance, ^^ The man whom
I saw," Vir quern vidU would be expressed in Persian f^ ^y^ ^
aJo>> Vj< an mard ki ora didam \- or, ^jLoJj^ 8^^ ^^ an mard
Id dtddmash; literally, ^^The man that I saw him." In these
expressions it will be seen that the particle gf is not a relative
pronoun, but a conjunction. This remark, which may be considered
premature, is sufficient to shew that the explanation of this pecu- »
liarity belongs more properly to the Syntax.
SECTION III.
ON THE VERB.
35. The Persian Verb is extremely regular in its struc-
ture ; there being only one form or conjugation, applicable
to every verb in the language. All the Tenses are formed
either from the Root or from the Ini&nitive^ as will be
seen in the following example of the verb (j^-^h^
raszdan, '' to arrive.^' The root of this verb is {j^j ras
(which is also the 2d pers. sing, of the Imperative) ; from
which the following four Tenses, the Noun of Agency and
the Present Participle, are formed :
TENSES OF TriE ROOT.
1st. — The Aorist, I may or can arrive ; formed by
adding the terminations am, z, ad; em, ed, and; to the root.
FE&S.
SINGULAB.
€t
1. jgtjij "RAsam, I may arrive."
2. ^j^ RAst, lliou mayest arrive."
3. 0^ RAsad, *' He may arrive.*'
PLURAL.
€t
j^j RAsenif We may arrive."
JjujS. RA&ed, You may arrive.
G
JjuiSy RAsamf,^^They may arrive.
36
THE VERB.
PLURAL.
2d. — The Present Tense, / can arriving, or I arrive ;
formed by merely prefixing the Particle ^ mi to the
Aorist; as,
PEIUI. BIKOULAB.
1. j^j ^ fm^KAB-am, ''lam ar-
^* L^J L^ fm-RAS-i, **Thou art
amviDg.
3. J^ ^^ fm-RAS-Bd, *'He is ar-
nving.
We are
» ••^ • ■ »
amving.
v>iM^j<o m^RAs-^ef, "You are
amving.
v3j^^ iwl-RAs-afK^, ''lliey
are arriving.
3d. — ^The Simple Future*, I shall or may arrive;
formed by prefixing the Particle &^ or ? bi to the Aorist.
\.-j^j> buBAB-am, "l shall ar-
nye:'
2. j<^ W-RAS-e, Thou wilt ar-
nve.
3. Jw^ bi'KAs-ad, '' He will ar-
nve.
^A^ M-RAs-^m, ''We shall ar-
* M
nve.
Juu4^ 6t-RA8-^{^^ "You will ar-
rive.
v>J^ M-RAS-ofu/, "T&ey will
arrive.
4th. — The Imperative, Let me arrive. The same as
the Aorist, except in the 2d pers. sing., which consists of
the mere root, without any termination.
1. j^j RAS-am, Let me arrive.
2. ^j RAs, "Arrive thou."
3. O^j RAs-ad, "Let him arrive
n
^ju^ RAS^m, Let us arrive.**
Ju*i^ RAS^, Arrive you.*'
c
\yjj^ RAsand, '^Let them arrive.
* This' Tense seems to differ very little from the Aorist, which, in its
nature, frequently denotes futurity. The student, therefore, may consider
it as a Simple Future, or as a modification of the Aorist ; the latter being
the opinion of all the Native Grammarians that we have had an opportunity
of consulting.
THE VERB.
37
From the root are also formed the Noun of Agency,
by adding the termination ^^^i-^^ anda ; as, ^SiXiu#»j ras-
anday '^ the arriver '^ : also the Present Participle; by
adding (j i— ; as, i^y^j RAsa^i, '* arriving/^
The remaining parts of the verb come directly or
indirectly from the Infinitive. The three following tenses ^
(No. 5, 6, and 7) are formed directly by changing the final
{^ n oi the Infinitive into the terminations of the Aorist ;
except in the 3d pers. sing., where no termination is
added ; together with other modifications which will be
seen below : — thus, (j^i^iH* m rastdariy *' to arrive,'^ from
which come directly—
5th. — Preterite or Indefinite Past, I arrived.
FEES.
filNGrLAR.
1. f^O^j RASiD-am, I arrived.
2. ^sO^j RASiD-«, Thouarrivedst."
3. v>i*^ RAsiD, He arrived.
PLURAL.
jCJJ^ RASiD-ewi, "We arrived."
Joj^j nAsiD-ed, You arrived.**
JjJJ^ KiLSiD'and, "They arrived."
6th. — Imperfect, I was arriving ; formed by prefixing
the Particle ^^ m to the Preterite.
♦♦X
1. A Jju<3»j ^ mtRABiDam, " I was
arriving.**
2. (^Jju^^ «l«RAsiD«, Thou wast
^'^ ^
arriving
»
3. O^j 1^ »i« RASID, He was
y^ ^i^
arriving
9>
jC Jju*>. j<B ml RAsiD^w, "We were
» x' ••^ • • —
arriving."
Jjjjudj^ fmviiiSVDed, You were
'" •• ^ . . }y
arriving.
Jjjou^^ nu RASiDan^f, "They
^ ^^ . . »»
were arriving.
7th. — The Past Potential or Habitual, I might arrive.
38
THE VERB.
or I used to arrive ; formed by adding ^ t (yae, majhul)
to all the persons of the Preterite> except the 2d pers.
smg., which is unchanged.
PBRS.
BINGULAB.
I. f^v>J^ RASiD-ome,' I might ar-
nve.
2. c/v>j^ RAsm-i, Thou migfatest
3. c/v>i^; RASib-^, He ought ar-
nve.
amve.
PLURAL.
^^^v>i*^ RASiD-€»i«, *'We might
arnye.
c^v>^v>j^ RAsii>-€d<?, Yott imght
amve.
>»
^^Jjjuu^ RAsiD-aftd^, They
might arrive.^
8th, — Compound Future, I u)ill arrive; 'formed by
adding the Infinitive, generally deprived of its final syllable
{^-^9 to the Aorist (^l^, &c.) of the verb ^j^)^
kh-dstdn, which signifies to intend or wish.
1. Jou^ (^1^ kHaham rasid, ^'I
shall or will arrive.''
2. JJb^ t/1^ *A'aA»iiA8n),*'Thou
shalt or wilt arrive.''
3. Jju^ v>^)^ khahad rasid, ''He
shall or will arive."
JuMi^^^jP- kNahem rasid, "We
shall or will arrive. **
Ju*^ Jl^^^ kliaAed RAsiD, " Ton
shall or will arrive.**
G
JumSj vK^)^ kNahand jmsiDy* They
shall or wiQ arrive."
The three following tenses are compounded of the Pre-
terite, Participle, and Auxiliaries.^ This Participle is re-
gularly formed by changing the final (^ w of the Infinitive
into the obscure S h; as from (^j^-^i^ randan, ^*to
arrive/' comes ^sXi^j rasidah, '' arrived '' or *' having
arrived ^^: hence.
THE VERB.
39
FE&S.
9th. — ^The Perfect Tense, I have arrived*
PLURAL.
SINQULAB.
1. J^ 'JH^ RAsiDah-am, '^ I have
arrived."
RAsiDaA-i, ^ Thou hast
arrived.
»
3. \£j^ ^04^ JLhsAjiOh-OBt^ ^'He has
arrived."
u
(C^ 'Jv^ju^ RAsiDaA-e^Ti, " We have
arrived.^*
JjWjji.^ RASioaA-tfcf, *^You have
arrived."
j3Vsjju4^ "Bjisa^ah-and^ '^They have
arrived."
10th. — Pluperfect Tensis, I had arrived.
1. A^y ^O^j RAsiDa^ budam, I
had arrived."
2. (^2>^ '0^^ KAsiDah budt, "Thou
^ hadst arrived.**
3. 2|y »J<4*^ RAsiDoA 6M(jf, ''He
had arrived."
£^^ sjju^ RAsiDaA budenty We
had arrived.**
J^3y *JS^ rasIdoA hudedy "You
had arrived.*'
<>>^^ Sv>j^ RAsiDaA budandf*^ They
had arrived."
11th. — Future Perfect, I ^Aa// Aaue arrived.
1. ^b l^JJb^ RAsioaA basham^ I
shall have arrived.*'
2. ^J5»V *J^^ RASiDaA bashz, "Thou
shall have arrived.'*
3. jJ^b l(v>A^ RAsiDaA bashad, "He
shall have arrived."
j»jJ5jb *v>4*^ RAsiDaA bashem, "We-
shall have arrived."
JjJSib »w)^j RAslDflA bashed, "You
shall have arrived."
Jjuisb Sjub^ RAsiDaAfia^Aan^^^'^They
diall have/arrived.'*
36. In the preceding manner may be conjugated every
verb in the Persian Language, provided one knows the
Infinitive and the Root. The Infinitive is the part gene-
rally given in Dictionaries ; and thence the Root may be
readily ascertained, by a few simple rules :
40
THE VERR— INFINITIVE AND BOOT.
GENERAL RULES.
1st, Every Infinitive ends in (j3 dan or /^ tan ; and
the Imperative or Root is found by the rules which we are
about to give. 2dly, The Aonst is * formed by adding to
the root the terminations am, t, ad ; em, ed, and. 3dly,
By dropping the final j^ of the Infinitive, we have the "
3d pers. sing, of the Preterite ; and by adding the termi-
nations above given, the rest of the Preterite is invariably
formed. 4thly, The Perfect Participle is formed by chang-
ing the final jj of the Infinitive into ^ imperceptible ; and
thence may be formed the Compound Tenses : hence it
follows, that if the Infinitive and Imperative be. known, the
remaining parts of the verb are easily formed*^
cu Infinitives in dan are preceded by the long vowels a, (a few
by the short a,) I, or H, or by the consonants r and n. Those in
tan are preceded by the strong consonants kh, s, shfOrf: hence
the following special rules :
RULE I.
■
Infinitives in ^>^ — adaii and ^^JJ-^ tdan reject these termina-
tions for the Root; afl; ,.j^lL->j} firistadan, "to send,^ root CJAr^J
firist, " send Aou -^ so /ov>A*^ fursidan, " to asf root ^j^ purs^
^^ ask thou.^^ The following verbs are anomalous :
INTINITIYS.
ROOT.
INFINITITB.
ROOT.
^>U^ " to prepare,'* U1
/^>b "4o ^ve," »
U^IJ "to be bom,*' \j
^2j,o *' to generate,'* u
^^:i^ " to open," Ui
^v>>^ *'to create," ^^J\
€€
^W«
to gather,"
i^^J^ to see, xJ^
^ J^ ''to hear,^' ^
i/vAiJS "to choose," ^^
THE VERB— INFINITIVE AND ROOT.
41
To these may be added the following' verbs in ^3, preceded by
the short yowel a ; there may be a few more such in the language,
but their number is by no means great.
INFINITIVE.
^^^j "to strike," ^^
^Ji-i "totake,""seize/*^lju^
^^2>j\ to sew, pierce, Ji
\ or L^\
^^^\ ' to cojne/* y or r^
INFINITIVE.
ROOT.
RULE II.
Infinitives in ,..^9— Hdan reject that termination, and substitute
y
^J] — ae for the root; as^ m^jJ^ " ^ praise/' ^cU^i. The excep-
tions are —
^^^ to be or remain.
^^^ to draw/'
9^^
^
99
^^PJ^ "to reap,**
4;
^^^j to neigh," howV' 9j
^^ jji ' to be or become,*' jj5>
^*)^y^ * to hear/'
if *t
^2>ykP to slumber/' ftip
The Infinitive ^ jJ5j is a contraction of ^o^j-^ ^^ t^O^y^ •
RULE III.
Infinitives in ^^ dan, preceded by >, ., or j inert, reject the
termination ^> for the root ; as, ^ JoT kandan, " to dig,'* ^ Aan;
00 . ^ ^ ^^
U^Jji P^''^^'''^'^* ** t^ cherish,"'' . j j parwar ; ^;y < or ^^\ azdan,
" to sew," j\ or j\. The exceptions are —
^^^\ ''to vex,'* "offend," j\j<
^^^^\ ''to press/' JJLi\
^^^j^ " to bring/' ^\ orjj\
^^ "to bear," " carry," j>
^y^ " to entrust," jUm>
^^;>j-**i» to reckon/' .
^ Jj^ " to dig a canal/' JJ^
^>j^ to do/' ' make/' ^^
c c
^^ Jj^ " to rot/' 0^
^^>jo " to die/' ^
G
42
THE VERB— INFINITIVE AND ROOT.
Seyeral of the ezceptiona under Rules II. and III. have, at the
same time, regular Infinitives ending in ^ jj _._ idan ; a% ^ JjJj^
>'^
< «
whence the regular rootyj; so, ij^,J^^ "to count,'* IJi.
RULE IV.
Infinitiyes in ^ tan^ preceded by «>r inert, reject ^^ and change
• into J for the root ; as, ^Jk»-^ji^ " to throw,'* j<j3U The follow-
ing are exceptions :
IMriMlTlYE. ROOT.
/^wL»'\ *'to draw a sword,** J^\
IHTIHlTiyB.
e^Ltui "tobiww,"
ROOT.
Ji^ "to weigh," ^
loii-jji "to sen,"
jjjliT* " to spJit,"
RULE v:
Infinitives in ^, preceded by ^ inert, reject both the ^
and ^j^ for the root; as, JLjj^ "to live,'' ^j^. To this rule the
following are exceptions :
^^p^ "to bind,'* v>i^-
tr^jBsi "to mix,** ' Wtc,** jij^
to
to Iea|v
* to seek,"
^^\>' to nse,
^J^)^ '* to wish/*
• •
lU
{2p*^j "to escapV'
»j
0/
^^^ to grow,
to wash,"
^j^:uJCJ^ "to break,"
^^^K '* to lessen,**
^♦jAiiMixiiy to Dreak, ■
c
^^^lli " to cause to at," ^jlli
.. A ; «•
to sit,**
(iW"
RULE VI.
Infinitives in ^, preceded by ^ inert, reject ^', and change
THE VERB.— INFINITIVE AND HOOT.
43
ji into J ; as, Jiiib " to have or possess,'' ^b. The following
are exceptions :
BOOT.
IN^INITIVB.
C ^
^^^\p\ "to accumulate, {^^\
^j^jP^ '* to embrace,** {^J^^
^y\ " to exalt/ j\J\
INFIKITIYB.
C
ROOT.
C
^fji ''to become/* "turn," ^
c
^^y to write, ^j-4y
c
^o^lt* " to quit," Jjb or rr^
RULE VII.
Infinitives in ^*, preceded by uJ inert, generally reject -^,
and change uJ into \^\ as, ^JkiU "to shine,'' "twist," &c. l-^\5;
but in some verbs the uJ remsdns unchanged in the root; as, /«Jkib
" to weave," u-i^* '^^® following are exceptions :
^^,J^ to accept,** ^,JJ
^j^»>. " to sleep/'
^ " to go,**
^j^:i*»J " to bore/'
4;
G 9
^^p^ "to hear/*
o
Y^
^^% "to dig," "cleave," jK
^^^ " to take," J
^ "to say/* j^j^
Sometimes the short vowel preceding the termmation of the
Infinitive is lengthened in the root ; as, ^^li. " to sweep," l-J>jj.
37. Let the Student carefully commit to memory the
preceding Rules^ together with their exceptions; after
which he will have no difficulty in conjugating any Per-
sian Verb of ordinary occurreiice. Let it be remembered,
at the same time^ that there, is not, strictly speaking, any
Irregular Verb in this language. For instance, the verbs
^^\Xjii f^ "' to see,'' and ^y-^ ^^ "" to do,'' are
44 THE VERB.— INFINITIVE AND ROOT.
no more irregular than the corresponding Latin Verbs
video, vidi, visum; and ago, egi, actum; for in both
languages the various tenses &c. are formed from their
respective sources or principal parts, according to general
rules. It may be observed, also, that most of the roots
given as exceptions to the preceding rules have regular
Infinitives in tdan still in use ; in fact, we ought in strict-
ness to consider the Infinitives as anomalous, and the
c
roots regular* Thus, /^r^-lA " to quit,'^ *' dismiss,'^ has
for its root ^ or yji^, which really come from the
regular Infinitive (j'^iJA or j^v^xlA, still in use ; whilst
/^■ M . fe itself is a very natural contraction of ^^v^xlA
into (jvXlA, and ultimately ^
As a specimen of an anomalous Verb, (if we may so call it)
we here subjoin the verb ^y. zadan, " to strike,^ root ^j zan^
which, to save room, we shall give in the Roman character.*
1st. TENSES OF THE ROOT.
sinauLAR.
Aorist zan-am i ad
Present .... mi-zan-am i ad
Second Future, bi-zan-am i ad
Imperative. . . zanam zan zan-ad
A X J Ti X- • 1 A .• ( xanandah "the striker/'
Agent and Participle Active, <
[^ zanan *' striking.''
PLUSAL.
etn
ed
and
em
ed
and
em
ed
and
em
ed
and
* It will be a useful exercise for the Student to write out this verb nt
full length in the Persian character ; to which he may add, didan^ root Inn
" to see," and shudauy root shcm ** to be," or " become.**
THE VERB.— INFINITIVE AND ROOT. 45
2d. — TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.
SINGULAB. PLURAL.
Preterite. . . , zadam zadt zad zad-em -ed -and
Imperfect . mt-zadam — — — — —
Past Potential, zadame zadl zade zad-eme -ede -ande
Comp. Future, Miaham zad, kKahl zad, kKakad zad, &c.
Pret. Participle, zadah " stricken," ** struck," " having struck."
Perfect zadah-am -i -ast -em -ed -and
Pluperfect ... zadahhudam budt hud bud-em -ed -and
Future Perfect, zadah bash-am -I -ad -em -ed -and
To this we may add another useful verb of frequent occurrence,
^^ jJ5j «Ai*dan, " to be," "to go," "to become," root y^ shav.
Aorist shav-am I ad em ed and
Present .... mz-shav-am — — — — —
Second Future, bi-shav-am — — — — —
Imperative . . shavam^ shav shav-ad — — —
Agent and Part shavandah and shavan^ " being," or " becoming."
Preterite . . . shud-am shudi shud^ &c.
Imperfect . . . mi-shud-am, &c.
Past Potential, shudame shudt shude, &c.
Comp. Future, kKaham shudj khahl shud, &c.
Pret Participle, shudah, " been," or " become."
Perfect . .^ . . shiidah am^ shudah i, shudah oM, &c.
Pluperfect . . . shudah budam, shadah budi, shudah bud, &c.
Future Perfect, shudah basham, shudah basht, shudah bashad, &c.
PASSIVE VOICE.
38. The Passive Voice is regularly formed by prefixing
the Preterite Participle to the various tenses of the verb
j^vXii, which we have just exemplified. Thus, the
Passive of the verb U^ is formed as follows :
46 THE VERB.
PRESENT.
8IMGULAB.
*^ l^j " I may be strack."
{^y^ S^ " Thou mayest be struck.''
^y^ ^^J ** ^® ™^y ^ struck.'*
PLUaAL.
(^y^ »3J " We may be struck."
v>iy5i »3J " You may be struck.**
JJ^ S3j '* They may be struck."
PRETERITE.
aO^ S^ "I was struck.*'
^^jJSs B^ ''Thou wast struck.
jJi 5^ " He was struck."
ji^jJi»3J " We were stmA."
Jj v>2> »^ *' You were struck."
ji w>^ J^ ** They were struck.''
It would be superfluous to add more of the Passive Voice, in the
formation of which the Persian very much resembles our own
language.
CAUSAL VERBS.
39. These are formed by adding the termination
^j^^jpl.^ dmdan, or, contracted^ ^^ijii-iL dndan, to the
root of the primitive verb ; thus, ^JJi^, root &>► '^to
leap''; from which j^jv^ipv^?- ^'to cause to leap''; so
^Od^j, root {j^j ''to arrive"; (j^iXjOw^j or ^^OcXttSfj
'' to cause to arrive/' " to send." All Causal Verbs
form their roots according to Rules I. and III.
a. Hiere are a few other compound tenses, or rather modes of
expression, besides those given in the paradigm of ^v>j^ (p. 35 &c.),
which will be treated of in the Syntax. It will be proper to add
here, that, according to Dr. Lumsden, whose authority we consider
decisive on this point (owing to his frequent intercourse with learned
Natives), '' the sound of the letter ^e in the terminations ^ — and
THE VERB. 47
jj^ — (Ist and 2d persons plnr.) of all the tenses is what is called
majhvl. The final ^^ added to the Preterite in forming the Po-
tential, or continuative past time, is majhul in the 1st and 3d pers.
singular, and in the 3d pers. plural. In all the tenses the final ^
(or hamza when substituted), in the 2d pers. sing., is mdruf^^
This remark is the more essential, as many Natives of Persia (at
least the uneducated) deny the existence, in their language, of the
sound represented by j and ^ tno/AtZZ, which they always pronounce
like • and ^c mcCruf; Le. instead of jj . roz, " a day,^ they say ruz ;
and instead of Jjo heU ** a spade/' they say b$L Dr. Lumsden states,
however, ''that the distinction is recognised in every Lexicon,
and will not be controverted by a well-educated Persian. It ought
therefore to be carefully retained by those who are desirous of
acquiring an accurate and classical pronunciation." — Lumsden's
Pers. Gram. vol. I. p. 72.
b. The verbal terminations of the Perfect Tense (p. 39) are
firequently used with Substantives, Adjectives, and Participles, to
denote simple affirmation or assertion. In such cases, the initial \
of the terminations is omitted, and the vowel which it forms becomes
united with the last consonant of the word preceding ; thus,
SINGULAR.
A^j-i\Mt ^ '' I am a scholar."
rg^jfe W y Thou art a servant
- \5\P'j\ "He is sensible.^'
PLURAL.
j>^\:^jS^ U '* We are scholars.''
^^ W ^"♦^^ * ^^^ *'® servants."
Jui\^> ^ISj< " They are thieves.'*
But if the preceding word ends in the weak i ^ the \ is retained in
the verbal terminations; as, A »jj^ "I am a slave^; ^c\ ajW^y
or ^d3U>>y ''Hiou art mad""; Caj^^ iCJ^i ** He (she or it) is an
angeL" If the preceding word ends in the vowels \ or . , the letter
^ is inserted, to prevent a hiatus between these and the verbal
terminations; as, ^.Uji> " I am seeing"; ^\Sb " Thou art wise";
and (contracted) C>*^%j>^ " He or she is fair-faced."
48
THE verb;
c. . Somewhat akin to the preceding terminations is another frag-
ment of a verb denoting " to be^ ** to exists nsed under the form,
of a Preterite, but generally with the sense of a Present Tense ; as^
SINGULAR.
€(
It
I am or exist
»
^^MNHH^'
(J.mJ^ Thou art or existest
i»
^^
<«
He is or ensts.
w
PLURAL.
jftjuuJb We are or exist.**
JJuLjb You are or exist.
They are or exist.
i<
M
>f
This verb is also used as an Auxiliary in forming a Preter- Perfect
Tense, by being joined to the Preterite Participle ; in which case
both the final s of the Participle and the initial ^ of the Auxiliary
are rejected ; as, JL))UjjJ^ " I have heard*' ; ^5**»v>>> " Thou hast
seen^'; O^Jou^ "He has asked.** This form of the Preter-
Perfect is frequently used in poetry, simply becauije it may happen,
to suit the poet's metre. It does not seem to differ in signification
from the ordinary form given in page 39.
OF NEGATIVE AND PROHIBITIVE VERB&
40. A Verb is rendered negative by prefixing the Par-
ticle &> (or *^) na, '' not '' ; as, Jsi-^ ^ or O^J^ " He did
not arrive/^ With the Imperative, the Particle «^ (or ^)
ma is employed in like manner, to express prohibition ;
^* U*Lt^ *^ ^^ U*L^ ''Ask not^^; so ^U* or bU« "Let
it not be,^' frequently used in the sense of " God forbid.'^
a. When the Particles ^ , S , or ^ are prefixed to a verb begin-
ning with \^ not marked by the symbol — (§.17.), the letter ^c
is inserted to prevent a hiatus ; the \ is then omitted, and its vowel
transferred to the inserted ^ ; thus, vl^\ j3\ anddkhU *' He threw'';
O^^ Jjj3 nayanddkht, " He did not throw'' ; Aorist, ^\ ufbamt
*•! may fall"; Future, J^ biyuftam, "I shall fall": ^\jdv
NEGATIVE VERBS.
49
O^X
"consider''; JS^ "consider not** If the verb begins with \, the
\ remains, but the madda — is rejected ; thus, v\ " He may bring'' ;
:>Jllj " He wiU bring"; j{« Bring thou"; J^i "Do not bring";
but this, in reality, is in strict conformity with the general rule ; for
j\ is equivalent to .M : hence, in prefixing the particles along with
the letter ^, the first \ is rejected, as we stated at the outset*
Finally, the negative «i , in verse, frequently unites with the foUow-
ing \, without the intervention of the j^. as, j^\i, for J^U), "He
came not."
•• o ^ •
6. The substantive verb JLjb is rendered negative by changing
the initial ^ into (^, and prefixing > ; thus.
SINGULAR.
^^jumJJ I am not.
j^-Ij3 '* Thou art not.
jj *' He, &c. is not.
PLUBAL.
We are not."
«<
*.^
C|
wXaa^mJO You are not.**
v^^JUmJJ They are not."
To denote simple negation, the verbal terminations noticed §. 39. 6.
are subjoined to the particle to, as follows:
* it
^
jg^ I am not.
^S^ or ^«3 " Thou art not,"
He &c. is noV*
We are not
Juu) You are not.
v>JLjl3 " They are not.
M
* On a similar principle the initial \ is omitted in the pronouns ^\
" this," and ^ (properly ^\\) " that,'' when they are closely connected with
the preceding word; as, ^j>J> "on this," instead of ^^j? » so, ^\.^ "in
that," for ^\ .^. I have reason to believe that this principle is of a very
extensive application ; but the discussion to which it would lead would be
here out of place.
H
( 50 )
SECTION IV.
ON THE INDECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. — CARDINAL
NUMBERS.-. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
ADVERBS.
4l. The Persian Language oflTers no peculiarity on the
score of Adverbs, except its extreme simplicity : hence it
would be superfluous to occupy our pages with a dry list
of words, which more properly belong to the Vocabulary.
We may briefly mention, that, in this language, adverbs
are formed, or rather adopted, as follows :
a. 1st, SybHantives with or without a preposition; as, ^cJbl^
" one, or any time'' ; Jj " by name'*' ; jj. j ^Ji " night and day'';
^g}^ 6> " perfectly" ; #o^4^^ " secretly." 2dly, Adjectives without
undergoing any change ; as, ^^ " well" ; C^^ " senrerely," &c.
In fiict, all adjectives may be used adverbially, if necessary, as is
frequently the case in German, and sometimes in English; thus,
'*the eagle soars high"; "the fish swims deep." 3dly, Adjective or
Interrogative Pronouns with Substantives ; as, \^ " here," \^\
"there"; \^« where?" «i^ "how?" uJ> J j/" whither?'
&c. These again may be preceded by a preposition ; as, \^ *\
*' hence" ; W\ ^ " there." Lastly, there are some Arabic nouns
in the Accusative Case used adverbially in Persian ; as, "^W " pre-
sently"; <v>^ '* purposely."
PREPOSITIONS. 51
PREPOSITIONS.
42. The simple Prepositions in this language are very
few, probably not more than seven or eight in number.
These are, j\ (in poetry frequently contracted into ^)
^'from/' ''by^'; ^ ''with (in company with)''; j> and
j>\ ''on/' ''upon''; &? or ? "in," "by," "to"; ^^
"without (deprived of)"; b ''up to," "as far as";
" except," " besides " ; J3 " in." In their application
they are placed before the simple or nominative forms
both of nouns and pronouns ; as, j {^ ^*i)^ " in the
city'' ; {j^J *' on me " ; j? b '' with thee " ; d^\y>
" except them."
a. The rest of the prepositions are, strictly speaking, substantives
or adjectives, having one of the simple particles above mentioned
expressed or understood. Such of them as are substantives require
the ixafat, or sign of the genitive case, between them and the noun
which they govern ; as, ^jy^\j>\ " under the ground" ; C^^ ^J%^
"above the tree (i.e. on the top of the tree)"; j^ CiiJj*.^ «J "near
the city,** literally, " to, or in the vicinity of the city." Some of
them may be viewed as adjectives denoting comparison ; as, ^jfiuo
^j\ (for (^J<>2-j) " before me'' ; ^Vj\ ^ " after that." All
these compound prepositions may of course be used adverbially
when occasion requires, as is the case in English ; thus, ij^ mh^
" he went out" ; Jm«\ y* ;^ \ " he eame forward" ; jjU ^-^ " he
remained behind."
CONJUNCTIONS.
43. Primitive Conjunctions, like the simple Preposi-
tions, are not numerous. The following are of frequent
52 CONJUNCnOMS, &c.
occurrence : -^ , ^" if " ; «-53-J " but/' " on the con-
trary"; \?"whUst," "unta''; y^ , ^»)y^ " Yfhen," " as" ;
«^, «^"that/^ "for," "as"; jjXkJ "but'^ Jp "also";
J ''and^' (pronounced wa, and sometimes o); jJ^ ''even
''also^^ V'^or/' ''either/'
9
a. There are also, as might be expected, many compound phrases
employed in this language as conjunctions; as, aT^) JW " whereas,^^
"inasmuch as*"; aj3V,< iJL^ "before that (antequam); so,
dJ3\j\ Ojo '' after that {po9teaquamy
INTERJECTIONS.
44. In Persian^ as in other languages^ Inteijections
consist partly of adventitiods sounds denoting the passions
and emotions of the speaker ; as, i\ " ah ! '' iS^ '' O V &c. ;
and partly of substantives expressive of pain or pleasure,
used elliptically, or in the vocative case ; as, ^J*^^*-^'
" Alas ! '' ^j3 or Ujj3 " Oh, unfortunate ! '' To say
more about this part of speech (if it may be so called)
would be uselessly encroaching on the department of the
Vocabulary.
NUMERALS.
45. In the following* Table we shall give the leading
Cardinal Numbers, together with the corresponding Ara-
bian and European figures. It is needless to say that
the whole system is extremely simple, and very similar to
what we have in English.
NUMERALS.
53
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
\
1
ei^,jCUH^
n
21
r
2
rr
«
22
jM>
^
n^
3
r^
30
jW?"
P
4
t^'
40
6
5
s\^*
b*
50
(J^
1
6
C j^
V
60
c
V
7
v»
70
o
A
8
c
A«
80
d3
^
9
V
V
90
s^
!♦
10
J-«
)♦♦
100
c
n
11
i^.ji»
\ ♦!
101
1 r
12
^
j-«j»
r««
200
»*i^
ir
13
r..
300
»*jV
IP
14
J-»jV
p..
400
»5pb.
u
15
0*»
500
n
16
<J^<^>nM>
V*
600
c
C C
9ji^
17
v>oTR»
v«*
700
o
CO.
•
&J^^
|A
18
O^^A^MMlb
A* ♦
800
n
19
V-
900
•• •
r*
20
^^
t ♦♦♦
1000
The formation of the Ordinal Numbers will be treated of under
the head of Derivative Adjectives.
54 THE MUSSULMAN ARA.
cu The aboye figures or numeric cyphers, now used by the Arabs
and Persians, are read like ours, from left to right; thus, the year
of our aera*1845 is i A^d ; so the corresponding year of the Hijra
1261 is I r II. It is generally admitted, eyen by the Arabs them-
selyes, that' the decimal scale of notation was invented in India, and
thence brought to Arabia.' By the Arabs it was introduced into .
Europe through Spain; and hence the system goes under the name
of the Arabian Notation. At first sight it would appear to be at
variance with the Arabian mode of reading (from right to left) ; but
this is not 'really the case, as the Arabs do read the numbers from
right to left. Thus, instead of saying, " In the year of the Hijra
(ini) One thousand two hundred and sixty-one,'' the Arabs say,
" In the year of the Hijra, One and sixty and two hundred and
one thousand," or ^^ two hundred after the thousand."
6. The Mussulmans reckon by lunar time in all their trans-
actions, commencing from the day on which Muhammad departed
from Mecca ; which, according to the best accounts, took place on
Friday, the 16th of July (18th, new style), A.D. 622. Their year
consists of 12 lunations, amounting to 354 days and 9 hours, very
nearly : hence their NeW-year^s Day will happen every year about
eleven days earlier than in the preceding year. It follows, then,
that there must be some difficulty in finding the exact day of the
Christian sera which corresponds to any given Mussulman date.
The following rule will suffice for finding the number of solar or
Christian years elapsed since any given Mussulman date : — ^^ Sub-
tract the given year of the Hijra from the current year of the same,
and from the remainder deduct three per cent ; then you will have
the number of solar or Christian years elapsed." Thus, we see a
valuable manuscript of a Persian Poem (suppose the Hadika of
Sanayi), written A.H. 681. We subtract this from the present year
of the Hijra, 1260; there remains 579: from this we deduct 3 per
cent, or one year for every 33 ; the result is 562, the real age of
the MS. in Solar years : hence it must have been written about
DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 65
A«D. 1282. This simple rule is founded on the fact, that 100 lunar
years are very nearly equal to 97 solar years, there being only
about eight days of difference. A more accurate proportion would
be 101 lunar to 98 solar years ; but this would lead to a less con-
venient rule for practical use.
DERIVATION OF WORDS.
4
46. In Persian, the derivation of one word from another
is effected by means of certain terminations, in a manner
similar to that which prevails in most of the Em-opean
languages. The words so derived are chiefly substantives
and adjectives, together with a few verbs and adverbs,
all of which we shall notice in their order.
Ist. — OF SUBSTANTIVES.
a. Substantives denoting an agent or performer are derived from
other substantives by adding the terminations ^b or /j\j, .1^ oxS\
as, from .^ "a door,'^ oVj^ ®^ tjl^j^ "* door-keeper'"; from
Ci^J^ ''service,'' .\^j^ "a servant or attendant"'; so, from
jj " goWs" fjj " a goldsmith, or worker in gold." In modern Per-
sian, the termination '^ (apparently from the Turkish) is some-
times met with; as, from jjjcJL^ "a musket,'' ^jj - ; **a
musketeer.''
6. Names relating to the place of any thing are formed by adding
^^— , jV> a'^' j)j> ^^^ r^ ' ^ {J^J^ " * P'^^® abounding
with lions," from ^ " a lion" ; ^b fL^ " a candlestick," from
xyji "a candle or lamp"; .U^ " a rose-bed," from J^" a rose
c c
or flower" ; so, from f^Jzj^ " a stone," ^*:^X^^ " a place abounding
with stones."
0. Diminutives are formed by adding (^jl_ for names of animals ;
56 DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES.
^ (sometimes 5V) for inanimate beings; and a>.^ or »^—, appU-
cable to any noans ; thus, {^:>ic " a little man/' from ^to '^ a man"" ;
8*ib "a small grain," from «3b "a grain"; e^^ **a little door or
window,'^ from .^ "a door.^
cL An Abstract Noun may be formed from any adjective, simple
or compound, by the addition of ^c — maWvf; as, iCj "goodness,'*''
from CiJuj "good;'' ^c^\^ ^l^ "the possessing of the world,"
"royalty," from -b mV^ "world-possessing,** an epithet applied to
monarchs. By adding ^j — to appellatiye nouns an abstract will be
formed, denoting the state or profession indicated by the noun ; as,
jblji^b "sovereignty," from slji^b "a king;" ^g/bj*i "traffic,"
from^:>^ ** a merchant." If the primitive word should end in
the weak &, the s is suppressed, and the letter ^ inserted before
adding the termination jc; as, »^,;\ "sad," ^^A "sadness;" so,
» jjj " slave," ^jJj " slavery."
e. Verbal Nouns are formed by changing the final syllable ^^an
of the Infinitive into .\~; as, ^ Jj^ "to see," .\v>>^ ••seeing" "a sight**
The Infinitive itself is frequently used as a general verbal noun, like
our words in ing\ as, JLd. ^0>^\ "the coming of Rustam." In a
few phrases the final c:)— of the Infinitive is rejected ; as, jji. j«o<
"coming and going;" so, C^j/j 0^^ "buying and selling,"
** traffic." Another class of verbal nouns is formed from the root
by adding ^— or {^-;r \ ^ {J^ "speaking," "conversation,"
from X the root of ^JVi^ " to speak"; so, itx>i\ " creation," from
^^^^,the root of ^^d^^ "*^ create." The noun denoting the
agent of a verb is formed (as already stated, page 37) by adding the
termination j jj— to the root; as, jjji^\ "the Creatqr": and
if the root ends with the long vowels a or o, the letter cf is inserted
between it and the termination; as, &Ju>^ " the speaker."
DERIVATION OP ADJECTIVES. 57
2d. — OF ADJECTIVES.
/. Adjectives denoting possession, &c. are formed by adding to
nouns the terminations ), J^^ ^jS, Jur«, jlj, j^ °' jj ^ ^^^
^_. as, from the root ^b "know,'' Ub "learned''; .L-oJ5>
"bashftd," from ^ "shame"; ^jjX^ "sorrowful," from ^
"sorrow"; JJU^Jj^ "wealthy"; .)^jjic\ "hopeful," from jjw><
"hope"; .Jl>- "possessed of life," "an animal," from ^U- "life,"
" soul** ; .^ " sorrowftil," from J^ " sorrow" ; ^j " golden,"
from ♦ "gold."
g. The terminations \tA^ U)^ .U*)^ and /v^, added to nouns,
form adjectives denoting similitude"; ^\i and ^^ denote resem-
blance in colour; as, U>\ CiXii "like musk"; ^L.^»l>- "like dust,"
" humble" ; rfrj (^ ^ " like the moon" ; ^li J^ " ruby-coloured" ;
^1^ J'i/ " of the colour of tulip.'*
K A large class of adjectives, which may be termed gentile,
patronymic, or relative, is formed from substantives, by adding the
termination ^J—\ thus, from ^JjJS "Persia," i^j^\ "Persian";
from julb "India," ^J^y^ "Indian"; from the city, jUwi, comes
4/jlfr^ "of, iyr belonging to Shiraz"; so, from the substantives
. ^ ^ " a city," J c !>w « a forest," •^ " the sea," are formed the
adjectives ^jj^, ij^^* ^&^' ''^^ termination is of extensive
use in the formation of both substantives and adjectives.
L The terminations e^\— and (sometimes) \^ added to nouns
form adjectives, denoting general or natural resemblance: hence
fitness or worthiness, of the original noun ; as, «3\^ " manful,"
" worthy of a man" ; «3Uj^ "demoniac," " worthy of a (ji>) demon";
L^\J5j " princely, or fit for a prince."
j. By adding the termination ^— to the cardinal numbers, we
form the corresponding ordinal ; thus, ^ •; q fc " the seventh," from
I
58 COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
c
seven.^ When more words than one are required to express
the ordinal number, the ^A- ^ added to the last only ; as, C1a#*>jl?
^SWb • " the twenty-seventh.** The word expressing the first of the
ordinals, ^^OLyj^, is an exception: the Arabic word Jj\ is also
frequently used; as, JJ[^ L-^b "Book or Section the First*; but
these words are not used, except for the jkni only. In the case of
a number expressed by two or more numerals, of which the last is
unity, the ordinal is formed by adding a— to the C^ ; as, Cy,j^r>
jC> J "the twenty- first" The ordinals second and Ihird maybe
Oj^, ^jui)or Aj3, (•jj^; ^^6 ^^^ follow the rule.
3d. — OF VERBS.
Ic. The principal derivative verbs in Persian are those called
Causal, already mentioned (§. 39). A few verbs are derived from
Arabic roots by adding ^oJ^.~; ^» ^jJjJA? "to seek, w send for'';
ji^^t <<to understand"^; from the Arabic roots \_)^ and ^,
of the same signification.
4th. OF ADVERBS.
/. We have already stated that adverbs in Persian have nothing
peculiar in their formation, most adjectives being used as adverbs
when occasion requires. This remark applies particularly to adjec-
tives in ^\ — and .L (i); which, when they denote manner, as is
often the case, may be considered as adverbs ; as, .\j s>U> " in the
manner of a pedestrian, or pawn at chess"; dj^l^SlP "wisely"'*;
a3)^> « bravely.""
COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
47. The Persian Language abounds with compound
words, consisting principally of Substantives and Adjec-
tives, in the fonnation of which it bears a considerable
SUBSTANTIVES. 69
resemblance to the English and German, We might
even say, that, in this respect, it equals or surpasses the
Sanskrit and Greek; but the comparison would not be
quite correct, as the Persian is void of inflections, and
consequently its compounds, though numerous, are not
so marked as in the ancient tongues. We shall here
endeavour to describe the mode of forming the more
useful compounds of the language, in the same order as
the preceding paragraph on Derivative Words.
SUBSTANTIVES.
a. A numerous class of Compound Substantives is formed by the
juxta-position of two otber nouns, in the reverse order of the geni-
tive case, the sign of the izafai being rejected; as, e6\^ ls^j^^
" cook-house, or kitchen,'' from ^c^j^V " ^^^k,'' and e6\>- " a house/'
This is, in fact, equivalent to ly^jjV ^»^^ " the house of the cook,**
with the order of the words reversed: so, »\? ^i i " the battle field,"
from ^ "contest," and jls **a place": in like manner, jUj/^V^
"the asylum of the world, i.e. the royal personage,'* from ^J^
"the world," and jUj "refuge"; so, ft^^Jj. "a day-book," «^U >^
" the book of wisdom," &c. Compounds of this kind are extremely
common in English and German, more so, indeed, than in Persian :
witness such words as London Bridge, Custom House, Thames
Tunnel, and thousands besides.
6. There is a class of Verbal Nouns, not very numerous,
consisting, 1st, of two contracted infinitives, connected with the
conjunction .; as, %l^j ^p^ "conversation," literally, "speaking
and hearing"; cicij«Ju«\ "coming and going," "intercourse."
2dly, A contracted infinitive, with the corresponding root; as,
j^jOu-i>- "searching"; JjC-<ii "conversation." The conjunction
60 ADJECTIVES, OB EPITHETS.
J in such cases is occasionaDy omitted; as, jJSi O^y y Ca-aS,
the same as jj^j j^o^^ &c.
c. There are a few compounds similar to the preceding, con-
sistinsf of two substantiyes, sometimes of the same, and sometimes
* of different signification; as, ^^ jj^ ^^j^3jj^ **^^ empure or
kingdom,'* literally, " boundary and region"; so, \^^^\ "climate,"
literally, "water and air " ; Ui j ^ " rearing or bringing up (a plant
or animal)." In these, also, the conjunction j may be omitted; as,
d. An infinitive or verbal noun, preceded by the particle
U, is rendered negative ; as, ^^^^y^ U the " non-hearing." The
difference between the use of the U and d3 will be treated of in the
Syntax.
e. A few substantives are compounded of a numeral and another
substantive; as, ^^bjW "a quadruped"; ^^ ft*4 "the afternoon
being the third pahr or watch of the day"; so the days of the week,
ajjji ciiX>, " Sunday," djjj^ j^ " Monday," «jjJ5i «^ " Tuesday," &c.
We may add, with regard to compound substantives in general, that
they confer great strength and expressiveness on a language. We
no longer view the ideas represented by each member of the com-
pound separately, but we conceive the two blended together into
one new idea. Thus, ^c^jjV ^^^ '' ^^ house of the cook," and
»i\>- i5>-jj V , though of nearly the same import, yet convey very
different ideas to the mind ; and the same may be said of all others.
ADJECTIVES, OR EPITHETS.
/. In these the Persian Language is particularly rich, every
writer using them more or less, according to his own pleasure.
A very numerous class of epithets is formed by the union of two
substantives; as, j;J «SV " having cheeks like the tulip"; (Sr\^JA
''having the fece of a fairy"; J> ^^J^^ "having a heart like stone";
\
ADJECTIVES, OB EPITHETS. 6 1
»^ j5Cm> " having lips (sweet) as sugar." It would be needless
to extend the list; we may merely observe that the idea con-
veyed by compounds of this sort is, that the person to whom the
epithet is applicable is possessed of the object expressed in the
second member of the compound, in a degree equal to, or resem-
bling, the first. In English we have many instances, in the more
familiar style, of this kind of compound ; as, " iron-hearted," " bull-
headed," " lynx-eyed,*" &c.
g. Another numerous class, similar to the preceding, is formed
by prefixing an adjective to a substantive; as, l^jj <— ^S^- "having
a fair face"; ^JV CiJb "of pure intention"; J> y±t *'k '"distressed
in heart"; J5 ^^ "of a golden pen," an epithet applied to MuUa
Muhammad Husain Kashmiri*, the finest writer of the Ta'lik hand
at the munificent Court of Akbar, and in all probability the finest
that ever lived. The idea conveyed by these compounds is, that
the person to whom they apply possesses the object expressed in
the second member of the compound, in the state or manner indi-
cated by the first. We have many such compounds in English,
used in familiar conversation, and Newspaper style, such as " clear-
sighted," " long-headed," " sharp-witted," " hard-hearted," &c.
h. Perhaps the most numerous class of the epithets is that com-
posed of verbal roots joined to substantives or adjectives; as,
jS JIp "world-subduing"; JjlG^ «JLsJ "strife-exciting"; Uj\ ^U
"giving rest to the soul"; \ - .^ Jn "ravishing the heart";
jj CiJjw^ "moving lightly." Most Grammarians consider the verbal
roots in such compounds as contractions of the present participle in
* It is impossible to imagine any thing more beautiful of its kind than
the penmanship of Mulla Husain. I happen to possess a manuscript of the
Bustan of Sa'di, written by him ; and assuredly the perusal of a page
thereof makes one view all other fine manuscripts as downright deformity.
Mulla Husain was among penmen what Paganini was among fiddlers.
62 ADJECTIVES, OR EPITHETS.
\j1 or \Jl, We do, indeed, sometimes find the real participle in
use ; as, ^V^\ J^ '* intrepid,**' literally, " heart-bearing (German,
herzhxiftY] so, ^J(^j ^^ "moving or waving like a cypress^;
but the occurrence of such phrases is very rare, compared with
those ending in the verbal root The Greek Language has nu-
merous compounds of the same kind, in substance similar to the
Persian, such as IpyoXajSo^ "one who undertakes a work,** and
linroTp6(l>os " one who rears horses," where we have the noun and
verbal root in the simple state, or crude form, with the termination
OS superadded ; so that the agreement between the Greek and
Persian compound is complete, the latter language having no ter-
mination to add. Hence there is no solid reason for calling the
verbal roots, in Persian compounds, participles; while, on the
contrary, the usq of the teim is objectionable, as it misleads the
student. Compound epithets of a similar kind are frequently used
by our best English Poets; such as, "the night- tripping fairy";
" the cloud-compelling Jove " ; " the temple-haunting martlet"
i. Another class of epithets is compounded of a substantive and
a past participle; as, sjo^^L^* "experienced," "one who has seen
the world''; xvj ^\ ^jj • y "one who has been tried in battle,"
i.e. "trained to war"; so, »5^A>- ^ "one who has felt sorrow";
S^l^i ^b "one who has laid a snare"; jjjblTdUsv '^one who has
endured aiHiction."
ki There is an extensive class of adjectives formed by prefixing
the particles b "with, or possessed of"; and ^ " without, or deprived
of," to substantives; as, JU b "rich," "possessed of wealth";
jjL«\.b "cheerful, or joyous," an epithet applied to the planet
Venus ; so, J> ^ "heartless, or disconsolate'* ; L-ibfli\ ^ "unjust**;
*\jj ^ " without need," " He who is above all assistance," an epithet
applied to the Almighty,
l. The particles Y and ^^ prefixed to nouns and verbal roots.
COMPOUND VERBS. 63
form a considerable class of epithets. S literally denotes " little'' ;
but in composition it seems almost to convey the idea of '* nothing,
or negation"; as, .,: S "of little strength"; ^^ ^^"of little
sense," "stupid"; ^^ ^ " eating little," "abstemious"; u-^b ^
" improcurable." The particle jb denotes " equality, or association";
and, like the preceding, is compounded with nouns or verbal roots.
Its effect is the same as the Greek a^ka, or the Latin coa\ as,
jV Jb " a fellow-traveller, or one who goes on the same road," the
same as a/coAot/do^ (from ityia and ice\et;do^) ; so, y^ jb " of the
same age," "coeval''; ^g-li Jb " intimate," "sitting together";
jb jb " a playfellow." We may add, in conclusion, that almost all
the compounds, of the species described in paragraphs /, g. A, ?,
ky and /, may occur either as substantives or adjectives ; hence they
may be appropriately classed under the term Epithets or Com-
pound Epithets.
m. The particle U, prefixed to an adjective, simple or compound,
renders it negative; as, \^^ U "impure," from \^^ "pure"; so,
• from ^ . ^iiJb " of pure, or sincere intention," comes ^^ ^jjjb b
" of wicked intention." It is also prefixed to verbal roots and par-
ticiples ; as, ^b b " ignorant," »^«L^ b " not commended," " disre-
putable." Sometimes it is prefixed to substantives; as, }i\^ "not
according to one's desire," perhaps elliptically for a\5j b ; for we
meet with .\^b and .\5jb "worthless," still in use. The particle b
has the same effect in Persian as the privative a of the Sanskrit and
Greek, the in of the Latin, and the un of the English and German.
Finally, in all the preceding compounds we have preserved the
component parts separate, though in manuscripts they may be
united or not, at the option of the writer.
VERBS.
n. Persian Verbs, like those of the Sanskrit, Greek, &c., may
be compounded with a preposition; as, ^J^l.^ "to come in";
64 VERBS.
fjf<^\^j> ** to rise up." Adverbs may also be prefixed in like
manner ; as, ^jwii ji " to sit down" ; ^ JJJ ^b " to soar up-
wards"; but in such phrases there is hardly any peculiarity
deserving the name of a compound.
0. The verbs ^y^, J^^^, o^y^* ^^ O^^ ^® frequently
used with substantives or adjectives, in the general sense of
"making'"; as, i^^/J^ "to make an order,"* "to command "";
/.yv^\*4 >. w'- "to make content," "to satisfy*"; ^^^m^ OlfljJ^
"to attend," "to notice""; ^:>j^ &iJ\lxo " to peruse (a letter)/'
The verbs ^Jliib and ^^^ are occasionally used in the same sense ;
as, JJuS»b L_JU "to make search""; ^:>j ^^ "to express an
opinion."" The verbs ^'^j^ and ^ Jj^ are used in the sense of
"to suffer,"" "to experience""; as, ^^jy^ ^ "to grieve"";
, jo^ CLf^ "^ suflFer affliction."" In this general acceptation, the
verb .%v>» "to see" occasionally encroaches on some of the other
senses ; as, ^^ JJ^ t^y " to smell,"" literally, " to see or experience
fragrance."
p. A knowledge of the Persian compounds will be absolutely
neciessary, in order to peruse with advantage the finest productions
of the language. The poeffs in general make frequent use of
such terms; and several grave historians indulge freely in the
practice. In the version of Pilpay's Fables, entitled. The Anvari
Suhaili, by Husain Vaiz, there are at least as many compounds as
sentences ; and the same may be said of the Tales of Inayat Ullah,
called, The Bahar i Danish : but the perfection of the system will
be found in the commencement of a Persian epistle, wherein it is a
point of etiquette to employ a great number of fine-sounding words,
that ifiean nothing. The h\mnen^ part of the Letter is generally
disposed of in a few lines, at the conclusion.
( 65 )
SECTION V.
ON SYNTAX.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
48. In the preceding Sections we have treated of the letters,
syllables, and words of the Persian Language. We now come to
the most important part of the subject — the construction of sen-
tences, or, in other .words, the rules for speaking and writing the
language correctly. We have hitherto taken for granted that the
Student is acquainted with the ordinary terms of Grammar, and is
able to distinguish the various parts of speech (common to all
languages) from one another. It is probable, however, that he may
not have turned his attention to the analysis of sentences, which
ought to form a preliminary step to the Syntax of every foreign
tongue. On this account, we request his attention to the following
general, or rather universal principles of language, an acquaintance
with which will enable him to comprehend more fully some of the
rules which we are about to state.
a. A simple sentence consists of three parts ; viz. a nominative,
or agent ; a verb ; and an attribute, or complement ; as, ^^ Fire is
hot" ; " Fire consumes wood." In the first sentence, fire is the
nominative, or subject of affirmation ; hot is the attribute, or that
which is affirmed of the subject, Jire; and the verb is serves to
express the affirmation. Again, in the sentence ^^Fire consumes
wood," fire is the nominative, or agent, consumes is the verb, and
wood is the object It appears, then, that the shortest sentence
must consist of three words, expressed or understood ; and it will
be found that the longest is always reducible to three distinct parts,
which may be considered as so many compound words. For
K
66 GENERAL PRINCirLES OF LANGUAGE.
example : ^^ The scorching fire of the thunder- cloud utterly con-
sumes the tall and verdant trees of the forest" In this sentence,
the words fire^ consumes^ and trees, are qualified or restricted by
particular circumstances : still, the complex term, ^^ The scorching
fire of the thunder-cloud" is the nominative; " utterly destroys** is
the verb ; and " the tall and verdant trees of the forest" is the
object." Tlie Sanskrit Language, the most philosophic of human
tongues, or, as the Brahmans not unreasonably say, " the language
of the Gods," would easily and elegantly express tbe abave sentence
in three words. '^The scorching fire of the thunder-cloud" wight
»
be thrown into one compound in the nominative case ; the verb
^^ utterly consumes" would be expressed by a preposition in com-
position with the verb to consume; and ^^ the tall and verdant trees
of thjQ forest" might be formed into one compound in the accusative
plura]^
b. Although every simple sentence is reducible to three distiiMit}
parts, yet it is not easy to find a general term that will accurately
apply to any of these parts except the verb. When the sentence is
expressed by the verb ^^to be," the three parts may be called, the
nominative, the verb, and attribute; as, ^^ James is diligent" Wh^t
the sentence is expressed by any other neuter verb, the parts may
be called nominative, verb, and complement; as, ^^ James went firom
England, to India." Lastly, when the sentence has an active verb,
the parts are agents verb, and object; as, ^^ James purchased a horse."
Perhaps the terms least liable to objection wiD.be nominative, verb,
and complement ; yet even these would be found inadmissible whea
applied to the Hindu3tani, the Marhatti, and. severali other dided»
of that class. In Persian, however, the latter terms are not iioi^pU-
cable : we shall therefore employ them in this sense in the next
paragraph, when treating of the arrangement of words.
c. A compound' sentence, or period, consists of two or more
simple sentences connected' by a conjunction, expressed or under-^
stood ; as, ^^ Knowledge fills the mind with entertaining views^ and
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 67
administers to it a pei*petual ^Btim of gratifidttioiiB : it giv^s eas6
to solitude ; fiUs a public station with suitable abilitiles ; and^ when
it is mixed with complacency, it adds lustre to such as are possessed
of it." It will be a useful exercise for the Student to analyze, by
himself, the above compound sentence; which consists of five simple
sentences, in all of which, knowledgey or its substitute it, is the
nominative. The last two clauses make but one simple sentence,
for they amount merely to this: "Knowledge, mixed with com-
placency, adds lustre to such as are possessed of it."
d. It may happen that the nominative to the verb is a short
sentence ; as, " What he says is of no consequence." So the com-
plement may also be a sentence ; as, " I know not what he thinks."
These sentences are equivalent to, " His speech, or speaking, is of
no consequence"; and, "I know not his thoughts." It may also
happen that the nominative, or the complement, or both, may be
qualified with a relative sentence, which is equivalent to an adjec-
tive. When such relative sentences or clauses occur they must not
be confounded with a compound sentence. Thus, " God, who is
Eternal and Invisible, created the world, which is perishable and
visible," may at first sight appear a compound sentence ; which is
not the case, for it is equivalent to, " The Eternal and Invisible
God created the perishable and visible world."
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
49. As a preliminary step to our remarks on Persian Syntax, we
tnay briefly notice the manner in which the words of that language
are usually arranged in the formation of a sentence. In prose
compositions the foUoVfing rule generally holds ; viz. In a simple
sentence, the nominative is put first; then the object, or comple-
ment ; and, lastly, the verb. Thus, in the sentence, " The Moghul
purchased the parrot," the collocation of the words in Persian will
be " The Moghul — the parrot — purchased," or jj^ ]ji^y^ J*^-
Here the Moghul is the nominative, beginning the sentence;
68 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
]j^^, the parrot, is the complement, or object, in the accusative
case, governed by the verb j^ pwrchased, ivhich comes last So
in the sentence, "Taimur came to India,*' ju«1 ^ll^jjjjb aj %9^ ;
Taimur is the nominative, came (o^\) is the verb, which is placed
at the end of the sentence, and to India is its complement It
may happen that the subject, or the object of the sentence, or both,
may be restricted by, or in combination with, various circumstances
of time, place, motive, &c. ; and the verb qualified by an adverb :
still the above arrangement holds good ; the nominative, with all
its restricting circumstances, coming iirst ; then the complement ;
and, lastly, the verb, with its qualifying word immediately before it
Words and phrases denoting time, manner, &a, when they apply to
the whole sentence, and not to any particular part of it, are placed
first; as, C^j J\m J^jij ^jji i^j^ji t^j, "One day, in a
certam city, a darwesh went to the shop of a certain trader."
When the complement of a verb is a complete sentence it is put
U tJUii i*. , J « That
man said, 'Do you consider me a fool?' " So In the sentence,
^ jJl »3\:il j\ ^/^\0^:> j^Uj &^ jo^ S^V^^ ij^^k " A certain
king saw in a dream that^the whole^of his teeth had dropped out,"
where the phrase "the whole of his teeth had dropped out" is the
complement to the verb « saw," or <* saw in a dream." When the
object is qualified by a relative sentence, the object is placed
before the verb, and the qualifying phrase after, as in the beginning
of the Gulistan : 3^ ^J^l ^j^\ d^JJj «i ^Jjoi \^ ^J\i^lb
" I have heard of a king who issued^the order (made the**signal)
for the executing of a certain captive." In like manner, in
"They relate of one of the kings of Persia Wt he "extended the
hand of usurpation over the property of the people"; the relative
phrase comes last.
a. In further illustration of the preceding general rule, together
with its occasional exceptions, let us analyze the simple story of the
ANALYSIS OP FABLE, pp. 22 & 71. 69
Vills^er and his Ass, page 22; and to make the matter less difficult,
We shall still employ the Roman character. First sentence : DUi-
kdne khare dasht — " A villager had an ass." This sentence is ex-
actly like the first quoted above, only the object (khare) has not the
sign ra attached to it, which, as we shall see hereafter, is not always
necessary to distinguish the accusative case. Second sentence : j4z
sababi bekharfif khar ra bara-^e charidan babaghe sot middd— " For
the sake of economy (non-expenditure), (he) gave its head {L e. its
liberty) to the ass, for the purpose of grazing in a certain garden."
In this sentence the subject, the verb, and the object are complex,
or accompanied by circumstances. The nominative is, <<the vil-
lager (qualified by the phrase), from motives of economy"; the
verb is, middd " gave, or used to give," qualified by the word
sar "head"; and the object, or complement, is, "to the ass, for the
purpose of grazing in a certain garden." Third sentence : Mardn-
mdni bdyh khar ra mlxadand; wa az zard'at ba dar mikardand —
"The people of the garden used to beat the ass; and (they) used to
send him forth from the cultivated ground," This is a compound
sentence, consisting of two distinct assertions, connected by the
conjunction wa " and." The nominative of both sentences is, " The
people of the garden"; the object is, "the ass"; and in the last
sentence, the verb mtkardand is qualified by the words, " out fi-om
the cultivated ground." Fourth sentence : Soze dihkdn posti
sher ra bar khar bast ; wa guj% Wakti shab bard-e charidan tu bar
d'h wa, dwdz makun — " One day the villager fastened the skin of a
lion upon the ass ; and said, At the time of night, you go forth for
the purpose of grazing, and do not make a noise." Here, again, we
have a compound sentence made up of two propositions, as in the
preceding. We may observe that the words " one day," being
applicable to the whole sentence, and not to any particular member
of it, are placed first of all. The nominative is, "the villager";
the verb, "fastened"; and, "a lion's skin upon the ass" is the
complement. The term po^ti sher has the rd added here, apparently
without any necessity; but it so stands in the manuscript from
70 ANALYSIS OF FABLE, pp. 22 & 71.
which the story is extracted. In the second part of this oompoimd
sentence, the nominative is still ^^the tillager"; the verb is gwft
^^ said" ; and the rest of the sentence is the complement to that
verb. This, as we have stated, is an ezceptioa to the general rule;
viz. when the complement to a verb is a complete sentence, simple
or compound, such complement follows the verb, fifth sentence :
Hamchiman har »hab ba podi ther an khar babagh mircfi^^ Thos^
every night, with the lion's skin, the ass used to go into the
garden." This sentence requires little remark. The nominative
is an khar '^that ass," accompanied with circumstances; via. *^in
that manner, with the lion's skin." Har shab^ ^ every night,"
qualifies the whole sentence. Sixth sentence: Harici ba shab
midid, yakin midanist ki in sher ast — ^ ^^ Whoever saw (him) by
night thought for certain that this is a lion." A compound sen-
tence; the nominative of the first part of ii^hich is ^^ whoever"; the
verb is "saw," qualified by the words, "by night"; and "him" is
the object In the second part, the nominative " he" is understood ;
the verb is "thought," qualified by the adverb "for certain"; and
the complement (following the verb, as in the fourth sentence) is,
" that this is a lion." Seventh sentence : ShcJ^e baghbdn ora did^
wa az tars bar bdld^e darahkte raft — " One night the gardener saw
him; and fi-om fear he went upon the top of a tree." Here the
word shabe "one night," qualifies the whole compound sentence^
and comes first of all. In the second clause, baghbdn (understood)
is the nominative, with the accompanying circumstance, az tars,
" fi-om fear." Eighth sentence : Dor asna-e dn^ khare digar ki
dar an nazdiJn bud, dwdz kard; vxi khari dihkdn niz ba dwaz dar
dmad ; wa bang zadan misli khardn girifi — " In the midst of this
(mean while), another ass, which was in that vicinity, made a noise;
and the ass of the villager also into braying came ; and began to raise
a cry in the manner of asses." This is a compound sentence,
consisting of three simple sentences ; in the first of which is placed
Dar a>snd-e an, which qualifies the whole sentence. . Khare digar ki
dar dn nazdiki bud is the nominative of the first sentence, qualified
* EASY FABLE FOB EXERCISE. 71
by a relative clause, which the Sanskrit would have expressed by a
compound adjective. Ninth sentence : Baghban ora shinakht, wa
danist hi In ktst — *^The gardener recognised him, and knew who
this was." A compound sentence : the complement to the verb
danist, m the last clause^ is M in Jctsty which is placed after the verb.
Tenth sentence : Az darakht farod amad, wa an khar ra bisyar lat
ba-zad — ^^ From the tree he eame down, and very much did beat that
ass with a stick." Eleventh sentence : Az tnjd khiradmandan
4
ffi0a and ki *^kharan ra khdmoslu 6iA"-^"Gti this subject the wise
have said, ^ That for the asses silence is best.' " It is needless to
adiji any remark on the last two sentences, which present no pecor-
liarity that we have not already noticed.
50. We here subjoin the preceding story in the native character,
which will afford the Student an easy example fbr his first lesson
in translating. He ought, at the same time, to ascertain the exact
meaning of each word, from the Vocabulary, and be able to parse
the whole of them, by a reference to the preceding portion of the
Grammar. In like manner let him analyze and translate Stories I.
and JI. (pp. 'ZO and 21) ; after whidi he may proceed to the Se-
lections at the end of the work. When he has read, and carefully
a^alyzedf from fifteen to twenty pages of the Seleptions, he may then
with advantage peruse the rules of Syntax which follow this page,
but not till then : for we hold it to be downright absurdity to make
a person read the Syntax of a language before he knows a little of
the language itself.
^ J (jIa*3 CL^^
^ ^
#<
p^
c ^ . . o
* JO^^jj* ji «^ c^5^j j\ J JOiJ ^ \jjJ>^ ^
72 FABLE FOR EXERCISE.
J C^^J>J Sjj^ C^j^ ;j,\Afc3 ^Jj^ (F)
•ji^^ J^yi y^ ^"^J^ J)ji "-r^ ^J
c\ ^y. Jj^ sZ^y^i ^r^^ ij^ («)
LSJ^ J J^^ J^ C^) * *^J cA>^ <>^ J^ Ltt?
«^j^ c)^^^j ^J'^^y Jf^^ cJfj^ *fj^i
c
^^^\ ^ o^b J o^\U» y ^,Up\i (^)
G
We may here observe, that the preposition ^ ba, "to,** "at,**
" in," " by," which, in the preceding story, we have written separate^
is frequently joined to its substantive ; and the same may be said of
the prefix ^ of the verb ; as also of the negative particle «j no,
" not," whicli, it seems optional to write separately or unite with the
verb. When to and 26 are joined to the following word, the weak
5 is suppressed ; thus, we may write \_^f^ 9J or u^dj " by night"
Lastly, the termination \. ra, the sign of the Dative and Accusative,
may be joined to the last letter of a word, or written separately;
thus, UIapU or V 10^^ baghban-raf " to the gardener."
( 73 )
CONSTRUCTION OP SUBSTANTIVES, ADJECTIVES, AND
PREPOSITIONS.
51. As the adjectives in Persian are all indeclinable, the learner
is freed from all anxiety on the score of Concord : he has merely to
remember, that, as a general rule, adjectives foUow the noun which
they qualify, and the noun takes the mark of the izafat, as explained
in pages 27 and 31; thus, ^^-^^ij^Jj "the sincere minister";
^^ ^^J " ^ '>ea^tiful face" ; ^j ; < ^ ^ ^^^ " a ringlet with the
fragrance of musk."
a. In poetry it is not uncommon to place the adjective first,
exactly as in English; thus, Firdausi has 9\J^ O^d j^ j^^^jl^J^
** an intelligent counsellor by the hand of the king"; so,
5Vi>3b Jjui-ijb " a wise king." When the adjective thus precedes
the substantive (which sort of construction is, in Persian, called
" the inverted epithet"), the mark of the izafdt is not used.
6. We have already explained (pp. 50 and 51) the nature of com-
pound adjectives : we may further observe here, that any noun with
a particle prefixed to it may become an expressive epithet; as,
JUb 3-« " a man possessed of wealth." Many epithets consist of
three or more words; as, y r ^ ? y^ \ ^ (jjJXo "a country taken in
war"; so ^A^ &-5-i>- ^» JjJ "a slave with a ring in his ear."
So in the Bastan of Sa'di we have ^^iS /o^J t> ^J^ (•i^ "The
Allwise, who endows the tongue with speech"; where the sub-
stantive j^^ has the rest of the line for its epithet. In fact, there
is no limit to the extent to which the composition of epithets may
be carried in this language; and it is necessary that, in every
instance, the Student should be able to distinguish them, that he
may add the mark of the izafai to the preceding noun, which they
serve to qualify.
L
74 ADJECTIVES.
c. Numeral adjectives precede the nouns to which they belong ;
and what is altogether at yariance with our notions of concord, the
noun is generally put in the singular number ; as, JU> J^ ^^ a hun-
dred years," instead of \^U> Jw^ ; so, (A>«j^ »3 "ten darweshes,"
instead of m^j j^ ; ^^ which expressions the numeral word prefixed
is sufficient to indicate the plurality of the noun, without adding the
usual termination. In fact, we hare frequently heard in our own
language, among the common people, such phrases as " five pound,"
"ten mile*': and the expressions, " a hundred horse,*' "three hun-
dred cannon," &c. are allowed to be good £nglish.
d. Sometimes a phrase from the Arabic, constructed according to
the grammatical rules of that language, may be introduced as an
epithet to a Persian substantive; thus, 0\«-PjJ^ ^^^^'*^uH5J^
"a derwesh, whose prayers are answered"; so, Jj ^M j^l^ 2^-^
"a man sincere in speech"; ^j^\ ^S "generous of soul."
e. The adjective pronouns ^\ and ^\ precede their substantives;
and there are a few adjectives of a pronominal nature which may
optionally precede or follow; as, f ^ ^ "all"; Jo$ "other";
ja>- " some or several" : thus, ^^1*3^ au^Jb or rt ^ /^Ui^ " all the
people"; so,^^^ ^ or ^^Jk> "^® ^^^^^ woman"; wXi^Jjj or
j . . ja>- " some or several days."
52. Our word than, after the comparative decree, is expressed in
Persian by j^ ; thus, j «^ •. j^ J^^jj " ™<^re splendid than the cheek
of day" ; so,j^^yj\ J^ ^ ^.jC^^j^ Lr4?5 ^> ^^r^^^ U liiiU ^^'i
" O king, we are, in this world, less than you as to pomp, but more
happy in our enjoyments." The adjective sj " good," is often used
in the positive form when denoting comparison, as in the following
£ ceo ^ ic J
maxim from the ^\ij6 of Sa'di : jjJol&Jui Ca-»^ j^ 9^ -^SCL^ad'^^ ^j^
" Falsehood, fraught with good advice, is preferable to the truth.
PREPOSITIONS. 75
when tending to excite strife'*; so in the following sentence,
J^y^\^j\ iO CiJjo ^^ Ca-j\ JcJ ^:\ iO JV^ "Silence is
better than evil speaking, and speaking well is better than silence."
a. The superlative degree, when used, governs the genitive, as in
our own language; thus, ^U:>yo ^JLCjj "the best of men";
so, Ca*#j\ •>- ul^y V [JtJ^ ^ 0^,y " They say that the meanest
of animals is the ass." The same rule applies to superlative forms
from the Arabic ; as, L_jl3^ l^jJ^\ " the most illustrious of the
prophets."
6. Sometimes the superlative is employed merely in an intensive
sense, like a simple adjective; in which case the izofai is not used,
as in the couplet —
" I will not say that I have given an exceedingly noble lady to
a most highly-renowned husband."
53» In Persian, the particles called prepositions are, strictly
speaking, very few in number, probably not more than those
already given in page 51, No. '42: viz. j^ "from"; b«with";
j> « on" ; »j> « in," « into" ; ^ " without " ; \5 " till," « as far as" ;
ji "except," "besides"; and .3 "in"; which invaluably take the
simple or nominative form of a noun or pronoun after them; as,
jVgJSj \5 3\jJ^j\ "from Baghdad to Shiraa:"; C^ ^l^y V
" I will go with thee." Such other words as are used like prepo-
sitions are really nouns, and in construction require the izafat; as,
j^\m 3ji " near the minister," which is an elliptical form of expres-
sion for^jitj 3p dJ "in the vicinity of the minister"; so (jj^j j»->J
"under the earth"; iA^-mJ ^J^\f "above his head"; ^^ vJ^^-J
"before me," that is, ^ (j^ j^ "^"^ front of me." The Student
will do well in committing to memory the simple prepositions, and
76 PRONOUNS.
in recollecting that the rest require the ixafctt when they govern
a noun.
a. It may be proper to obsenre that the partide j>' is a species
of noun, denoting ^< other," ^^ else," and consequently we should
expect it to be followed by the izqfat ; which, however, is not the
case; thus, in the following line from Sa'di —
^^ Pity it were he should speak other than (what is) good" —
we know, from the metre, that js>. has no izafat. We may farther
mention, that the particle \3 is more generally used as a conjunction,
with various significations, which it is beyond our province here
to detail
PRONOUNS.
54. We shall now treat more particularly of those classes of pro-
nouns, the explanation of which we passed over in Nos. 32 and 34 ;
the others having nothing peculiar in their construction. The
following may be denominated affixed^ because, with the exception
of the 3d plural, they are always joined to some word or othar in
the sentence in which they are employed.
SINGULAA.
1. M — my or me.
2. O-^ " thy or thee.*
^ ("his, her, its," or )
' ^ { " him, her, it" J
FLUKAL.
^U "our or us."
^ " your or you.
.*\ii ''their or them.**
When these pronominal terminations are joined to nouns they
generally correspond with our possessives, my, thy, &c; as,
J3 "my heart"; C^oll/ "thy book"; ;Ji^ "his, her, or
its head" : the plural terminations are very rarely used, their place
being supplied by the nom. pi. of the personal pronouns employed
as nouns; thus, U ^/l^J^ "our hearts or hearts of us"; LJ5> iJ^J^^
AFFIXED PRONOUNS. 77
"your horses or horses of you"; ^Ai^S JU- "the condition of
them." When the noun ends in b imperceptible, the terminations
(•, O, (ji, become J, 0\, and ^\ ; as, J «^U. «my robe," &c. :
and if the noun ends in 1 or j long, they become ^, C-o, (jl> ;
as, ^,b "my foot"; C-Oji "thy hair"; (ji^, "his or her face."
These are euphonic principles, similar in their nature to those
already detailed in p. 4*7. 6. with respect to the verbal terminations
added to substantives, adjectives, and participles.
55. When the terminations ^—^ O — , tf^—, are joined to the
persons of a verb, they generally correspond with the dative or
accusative case of the personal pronouns; as, C^w«Oo> ^^ I saw thee";
^jLtJLfiJ " I said to him." It appears, then, that these affixes may
be employed to denote either the possessives my, thy, his, &c., or
the dative and accusative, me, thee, &c., according to circumstances.
When employed in the latter sense, they may be joined not only
to the verb which governs them, but to any word in the sentence,
with the exception of the simple prepositions, already noticed, and a
few of the conjunctions, as , " and," b "or," &c, ; thus, >^ Ub^ V^>
" the porter did not admit me," or, verbatim, " the porter to
me guidance not made"; so vy^ (j^-^ ^j-A»- "the earth has
so much consumed it." In instances of this kind the Student must
be guided by the context; as, obj3, in the first of the above
examples, may also mean "my porter": but when Sa'di (from
whom the expression is taken) states, in the sentence immediately
preceding, "that he went to wait on the great man^^ the true
meaning of the expression will be obvious.
56. The invariable word ^J^^ ia/ Persian, corresponds with our
reciprocal pronoun nelf; as, ^^ ^y* " I myself" ; :>^ jj " thou
thyself," &c. It may also be the nominative to any person of the
verb, the verbal termination sufficiently shying the sense; as,
78 REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS.
^li. >•>- "I myself went"; jouJ. :>•>- "they themselves went."
The usage of the Persian language requires the employment of
>^, on certain occasions, as a substitute for a possessive pronoun ;
thus, O-ij 2>«->- ^«Jl>- «-^ jSjj " the goldsmith went to his own
house," literally, "to the house of self"; aJw«\ ^ ^^ ^Vj^ c;*
" I was coming from my garden or from garden of self."
a. The following is a general rule for the employment of >•>..
If, in a simple sentence, a personal pronoun in an oblique case (as,
me, ihee^ of me, or my, &c.) be required, and if it be of the same
person with the nominative of the sentence, the place of such
pronoun must be supplied in Persian by >^ ; thus, " I am writing
my letter," j»-J>y ^ >•>- la->- r^, i-e. "I write the letter of (my)
self"; so V \^y^ (•^'^ J^ " Zaid beat his (own) slave";
Jjui^ i^ ^«3\^ M^^ " ^'^^ people went to their own houses."
6. It is almost unnecessary to state, that when the two pronouns
are not of the same person, or rather when the latter pronoun does
not belong to the nominative of the sentence, ^^ cannot be used ;
as, " Zaid beat your slave," >: \\^ ^^ jj>: ; so, " Zaid beat his
(meaning another person's) slave," v \^-^ ^^LP Jl^. We may
observe, that instead of 3^, the words *iSj>«>-, {:X^^^* ^^^ ^^
are sometimes used : #j^:u^ also occurs, but only in the 3d pers.
sing.; as, aJJ> ^ji>^ ^«3\^ .> ^Joj "I saw Zaid in his own
house" ; literally, "I saw Zaid in the house of his self." This sen-
tence, by the way, would at first sight seem to be at variance with
part of the preceding rule ; but the expression amounts to this,
" I saw that Zaid was in his own house," or " I saw Zaid, who was
in his own house."
c. We find in the last London edition of the Gulistan, Book III.
Ap. 8, the following suspicious reading : '^S yw^\ t^j^ U^ij^ ^^
'%
RELATIVES. 79
^^ One of the sages made a prohibition to his son," where the
use of the pronoun (j5^— is wrong. We hare consulted nine
manuscripts of the original in our possession, not one of which has
the pronoun ^~ . In M. Semelet's edition of the Gulistan,
printed at Paris, 1828, the same error is repeated, although the
work pretends to great critical accuracy.
67. With regard to the demonstrative pronouns ^\ and ^\, we
hare little further to add. (Vide No. 33.) When the name of an
irrational being, or of an inanimate object, has been mentioned,
and reference is made to it afterwards by a pronoun, as he^ she, it^
they, &c., ^\ and ^\, with their plurals, are generally used, seldom
•\ or AiJ\', thus, C^Uo\ ^J\ jyo^ CJ& jP^ "The lion said.
The painter of it (alluding to a picture) is (was) a man"; so
jjjiU Ij^Ip ^\ Jj»j\5 :\ L^ii- "The wise men were at a loss in
the explaining of it."
a. The phrases ^^ ^^, ^ ^, or ^i,* ^^J^, y ^\ j\, &c., are
'^ ^ ? "^ ^ ,^
equivalent to our words mine, thine, &c.; as, iJLt^^ L:)^y^^ Juum^
" The throne of Egypt is thine" ; so in Story 71 of the Selections
we have the phrases, ^^ t^ ^\j\ Jj^ *^^ {J>^ " Whose house was
this originaUy?" ^j^ J\j\ CJ£ "He said, That of my grand-
father's." jji &^ J :\ CUJSi J<6 .\ ^^ " When he died, whose
did it become?" g^jo ^\j\ cl^ii "He said. That of my
father's," &c.
58. The words «/ and ^^^ in Persian, generally correspond, in
the nominative case, with our relative pronouns who and which;
but Dr. Lumsden shews that they are merely connectives, and have
the personal pronouns understood after them; thus, Sa'di, has
CUib JSp «^ mO^P V t:>\: iii^ " I saw a prince who possessed
wisdom" : after *^ the personal pronoun j\ is understood ; as.
^r
80 RELATIVES.
CO
CiJ^b AiP j^ «^ " that he possessed wisdom." As the personal
pronoun, however, is generally left out, the particles a^ and &>.
have been considered, by some oriental grammarians, as relatives.
The following sentence from the Gulistan, to which many others
might be added, confirms Dr. Lumsden's views on this subject:
^ ^j9^ 5?^ J^3JJ3^ y^L5^^ " ^^ ^^^ ^^^ yxxxrcA (sets up)
a camphor candle in a clear day''; where y is a contraction of
j^ «/; literally, " The fool, that he bums," &c, where the mere «^,
if it were a relative, would have equally answered the metre.
a. When the Persians have occasion to express a sentence, con-
taining what, in European Grammars, is called a relative pronoun
in an oblique case, they employ the particle «^ together with the
corresponding personal pronoun, as may be seen in the follow-
ing examples from the Gulistan : — Ist, In the Genitive Case :
^< Many a renowned personage have they deposited beneath the
dust, of whose existence (literally, that of his existence) no trace
(now) remains on the face of the earth." Again, Sa'di says —
^ OuSj j^ ytS^^ j^j 9^ J^^ ^ «3 ^< " I am not he whose
back you wiU see in the day of battle ;" or, literally, ^ that yon should
see my back." 2dly, In the Dative : ^^^jJi^ Cj^i ^ (jo-^ 9^^j\
*^ O (thou) to whom my person speared worthless ! " literally,
"that my person appeared to thee." 3dly, In the Accusative:
yuo d^ (j^ J^«^ &J^ /j^ «^ ^2)^ ^' ^^ whom I beheld all fat,
like the pistachio nut;" literally, " He that I saw him." 4thly, In
the Ablative: C^j^S >»- ^dola^ l^ j^ «53^ " That (proceeding) in
which there is an idea of danger."
6. The compound terms gSrJb and &>^, when unaccompanied by
a substantive, correspond to oXa words whosoever and whatsoever ;
the former generally denoting rational beings, and the latter infe-
rior animals, or lifeless matter ; thus,
INTERROGATIVES. 81
O^j^ ^^^ J^j^ if^j-i^ 00^ J^Ji CU^!) «^ " Whoever shall
wash his hands of life, the same will utter whatever he has on his
mind." If we could trust the genuineness of the following sentence
from Sa'di, it would appear that &>^ may sometimes be applied
to persons as well as things ; thus, in the Second Book of the Gulis-
tan (Ap. 37), an experienced old Doctor recommends to his pupil the
following ingenious method of getting rid of his friends :
" Whosoever are poor, to them give a small loan ; and of those
who are rich ask something" : but MSS. by no means agree in this
reading; and our finest MS. has it thus,
" To the poor lend a little, and of the rich ask something."
c. When the substantive is expressed after jb, the particle »5^
may follow, whether the substantive be animate or inanimate; as,
«yjjL»^ " every thing which." When the termination ^j majhul
(p. 30. a.) is added to a noun, and a/'or &^ follows, the substantive
is thereby rendered more definite or specific ; as,
^j Ji^ ^^yL Jci^J^ '(C^j J-^ "Envy is
such a (peculiar) torment, that it is impossible to escape firom its
pangs, except by death." We may observe in conclusion, on the
subject of the relative, or rather the want of a relative^ in Persian,
that if a/' and »». are to be considered as mere connective particles
(a matter on which our researches do not warrant us to give a
decisive opinion), it need not be wondered at that the rules re-
specting their agreement with their antecedents should be liable to
many deviations.
59. We have already stated (No. 34) that a/' and &>. are used as
interrogatives ; the former applicable to persons, and the latter to
irrational beings : but if the noun be expressed, &>. may be used
m both instances; as, ^au^ "What man?" The word Jj^
M
82 CONCOBD OF VERBS.
is also used as an interrogative : it is applicable to every gender
and number; as, y^ Jj^ "What or Which man?" .K a\\}S
"What or Which business?" aT and «>-. when used interro-
gatively, are to be considered as substantives singular or plural,
according to the nouns which they represent; as, jjib sS u-**^^ i^\
"Whose horse is that?" O^J^ i/^ )/ "To whom are they
speaking?" v>jj^ ^J^^ "Who are they?" ^^o^\ s^ j^ :\
o ^ ^
" On account of what are you come ?" jj. \^ " For what did
you go?" The interrogative particle \j\ corresponds with the
Latin an, num, Sec; as, Cj^\ SJ^^ slSi^b bt ^n rex veni^? "Is
the King arrived?"
CONCORD OF VERBS.
60. If the nominative to a verb, in Persian, be expressive of
rational beings, or of living creatures in general, the verb agrees
with it in number and person, as in our own language ; also, two
or more nouns in the singular, denoting animals, require the
verb to be put in the plural number; as, jijjLifj /oV^W "The
brothers were vexed"; 03:>j-»ij^j\ JJUj>- ^VyW "The animals of
the forest made a noise"; 0^^ )j>^, }^^ $\y " The goldsmith
and the carpenter seized the images."
61. When two or more inanimate nouns have a common verb,
the latter is generally put in the singular, as in the following lines
from Sa'di:
"Although silver and gold be produced from stone, yet every
stone will not yield gold and silver."
jJJjb eui^ cJ^J VH^ ^V *^^fi^ {2^ ^^
" Until a man hath spoken, his defects and his skill are concealed."
62. We have already mentioned, that when a numeral adjective
CONCORD OF VERBS. 83
precedes a noun, the latter does not require the plural termination :
but if the noun denote rational beings, and be the subject of a verb,
the verb is put in the plural ; as, Jax*-i4 ^^^^ j^ U^-Jj^ *^
^^ Ten darweshes will sleep on one blanket." Irrational animals,
and especially inanimate things, generally take the verb in the
singular; as, jji^W <->*^^j^ 0^ "A hundred thousand horses
were ready"; so, :jy e>l^-^J^J »i;^ j^ j^ " There were two
thousand rooms and a thousand vestibules."
a. Arabic plurals, introduced into Persian, follow a similar rule ;
that is, if they denote animals, and more particularly rational beings,
the verb is put in the plural : but inanimate nouns generally take
the singular; as, jo^ y*; q ^ \^^ " The wise men have said";
Jo ^^ U OU ^y ^?^ ^^ J\ ^l^ ^ J^ j\ « By the ap-
proach of spring, and the passing by of December, the leaves of our
life come to a close."
h. The classical scholar will observe that there is a resemblance
between the concord of a Persian verb with its nominative, and that
of the Greek ; the plurals of the neuter gender, in the latter lan-
guage, requiring the verb to be in the singular. The Persian has
another peculiarity, not unlike the German; viz. when inferiors
speak to or of their superiors, the verb is employed in the plural,
generally in the third person. Thus a servant, in speaking of his
CO p
master, would say, jo^ &!}. /^i^ »^^ u-*^\-^ " The master of the
house is (are) gone out." So, in Story 26, we have a similar con-
struction, viz. U^ »S Juui»\ J6 ji jO sS jJuLjb j\^j\^ »U> ^l^
^^ Your Majesty is a great glutton, having left neither dates nor
stones"; literally, "The Asylum of the universe are a great
glutton," &c. This style, however, does not seem to have belonged
to the classic period of the language.
( 84 )
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS.
63. The only peculiarity in the govemment of verbs, in Persian,
is, that a transitive or active verb does not always require, as in
Greek and Latin, that its complement should have the termination
of the accusative case ; thus, jU^t-->L5> jPU*> LSU* " O cup-bearer,
bring a goblet of wine;" where \^\Jjii\^ has not the sign of the
accusative case affixed. So in the following lines from Sa'di :
" I have brought (only) an excuse for the defect of my service ; for
in my obedience I have no claim: the wicked express contrition
for their sins; the holy beg forgiveness on the score of their
(imperfect) devotions.'* In this extract the four words, excuse,
claim contrition^ 3,nd forgiveness, have not the sign of the accusative
case added to any of them in the original. Again, in the following
sentences the accusative case is accompanied by its appropriate
c o C c >
sign : jJlI->-\o3^ l> . JJ V^ " They threw the slave into the
sea** ; OJib^^ slG ^y^ b \^i.lXj^ uMj;^ " '^® darwesh
preserved the stone in his possession." Lastly, in the following
extract from the Story, p. 71, we have the same word used in
different places, first without, and then with the V ; thus,
Jo;^jju« ^^ ib ^J^:^ * d^b (jr^ ^jlSjb^ "A certain
villager had an ass. The people of the garden used to be^t
the ass." In the first sentence we have cJiib ^5 j>-, without
the V ; and in the second we have j^^Ijuq );»>•, where the V
is added. Hence we see that sometimes the object takes the termi-
nation L and sometimes not; and the following appear to us to
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 85
be the general principles that regulate the insertion or omission of
that termination :
a. When we wish to render the object definite, emphatic, or
particular, V is added ; for instance, .U-> t-A-S> signifies, ** Bring
wine"; but .Uj \jL^\jJ^ means, "Bring the wine." So in the
Story, C>uib ^J^ ^\m^ " A villager had an ass," the V is not
needed; but in the next sentence, jo:>Lju« \)r^ ^V ci)^*?/* "The
people of the garden were beating the ass," the V is used, because
the object is now more definite.
b. It is a general rule to add V to the object of an active verb,
whenever any ambiguity would arise from its omission ; or, in other
words, when the action described by the verb is such as might be
" performed by either the agent or object ; thus, y^ VXjd S.\
" The goldsmith struck the carpenter" ; C yy^r^ ^\JtP^ ^V* " The
man slew the lion" ; jc-LCi-o \J\J^^ j^y^jJiA *' Iskandar overthrew
Dara," or, as the Latin Grammar hath it, Alexander Darium vicit.
In these examples, if we omit the V we are left merely to infer the
sense from the arrangement, which, in ordinary prose, might form
a sufiicient criterion, but not in verse.
c. When the object of an active verb is a personal pronoun, or its
substitute 5>^, the termination Lis always used; as, j^Ui»j*%3 Lc
" Dost thou not know me ?" ^JJ^ 13 " I saw thee" ; ^yjJLiS \j^\
"They seized him"; \la^ j \. j \.U .b»Uli "Preserve us from
the path of error" ; C-^A y^^ ^ )i^j^ L>**^ m^ " Such a person
has killed himself."
d. Having stated what we consider the general principles which
regulate the insertion of V as the sign of the accusative case, the
rule for its non-insertion may be inferred ; viz. the insertion of V
is not necessary whenever the nature of the sentence is such as to
86 THE TEHMINATION \j .
enable the reader or bearer to comprehend the sense clearly without
it, except when we wish to particularize or limit the object, or when it
is a personal pronoun. Lastly, in such compound verbs as we men-
tioned in p. 64. 0, like ^^^^ J^^ &c., the \ is never added to the
substantive.
64. The termination \ is added to a substantive to denote the
dative case as well as the accusative. On such occasions its inser-
tion is indispensably necessary ; as, jsju^ C1a>\^ \j j<Jlfe ^ They
relate a story with regard to a certain oppressor"; so in this phrase,
aJo^ t-T*^^ S H^jj j^ " ^^^ * thousand rupees I bought
a horse."
a. When a verb governs an accusative, and at the same time a
dative case, the termination V is seldom, if ever, added to both eases ;
thus^ if the accusative be indefinite, or does not necessarily require L
according to the principles already laid down, then the dative has
the V added ; as, ^^b ^^^ )y^ {^ " ^ S^^® * \io^ to that man."
So, jj^> 0^ c^ li'^^jLiuo ^^Jt> ^^ Let them give a half to each
woman." If the accusative necessarily require \.^ the dative must
be formed by a preposition, as «j " to" ; thus, jjjb^ oj (3)^ *^ L J*^
" Let them give the ruby to that woman" ; so, » j^ ^^.^ \j u-^lsJ
^^ Give me the book." In these last examples, the words l^Ix5^
and J^ being definite, require the addition df \'; and the
dative cases are formed by prefixing the particle ^j 6a to the
pronouns ^ and ^\,
65. When the object is in a state of construction with another
noun, or with an adjective, and from its nature requires V^ that
termination is added to the latter noun or adjective; as follows;
aJu>3 \j j-^j j-^ v>->) " I saw Zaid, the son of the minister";
so, \j^.»aA CJJS CajIj^ ^"^y^ C^^rJ^ " la Paradise you will
THE TERMINATION \j . 87
not find the rosy bowers of Musalla." In this rule there is much
sound philosophy; for when one substantive governs another in
the genitive, the two are to be considered as one modified noun ;
thus, in the following sentence, from the 1st Book of the Gulistan,
jui^ ^\yM \j ^or^^iSii^ :>y^ ^^UiLj ^jUy. ^^j^ vjr^.
^^ One of the kings of Khurasan saw in a dream Sultan Mahmud
(the son) of Sabaktagin," the three words ^^i^iIoms ^y^ m^^^
are viewed as one modified noun, and the termination \ is very
properly placed at the end. In like manner, a substantive, accom-
panied by an adjective, is to be considered as a single specified
noun; and, in construction, the termination V^ when requisite, is
placed at the end; thus, :>jruJ^ \j»J^.^J^ ^^ ^\S"The Judge
summoned the neighbouring woman." So, however complex the
adjective may be, the V is placed at the end; thus, from Sa'dl,
OuJ^llJ^^ \ji:>y^j\ ,LU>' j »J^,3 ^^ (i)V j' "^^ ^
" They sent forward several individuals from among men who had
seen service and had experienced war" : here the complement or
object of the verb, Jo^^^^^mW, consists of the whole preceding
sentence ; and the V is affixed last of all, the more to define that
complex object, now viewed as a single whole.
66. It remains for us to notice a few verbal expressions which
some Grammarians consider as tenses, and which we omitted in the
paradigm, as of small importance. In Dr. Lumsden's Grammar,
Vol. I. p. 93, &c., we have two tenses of a potential mood, present
and past, formed respectively by adding the contracted infinitive to
the aorist and preterite of the verb ; ^JUJ\J (root i^S) " to be
able"; as, C*^ (^\H " "^ ^"^ ^^^® *^ S^»'' ^^ "^ ^^^ g®"5
Cjij JLj|y " I was able to go," or " I could go." But, in truth,
we are more inclined to consider these as sentences than tenses.
In a large and closely written Persian manuscript, which treats of
the grammar of that language, called the Miftdh-ut-tarktb, compiled.
4^ ^
I
ft
88 AUXILIARY VERBS.
as the writer tells us, by Shewa Ram^ poetically named Jauharj
there is a tense called the Continuative Imperative, or Imperative
of duration, formed by prefixing the particle ^ to the ftiture
perfect ; thus, from jJ5>b «JLi: " He shall have gone,'* comes
vjjib tSij ^ " Let him continue going." This tense is also called, *•
according to Jauhar, litimrari-e-Maxnun (^j^jja^ {Jj^r^^% which
is a sort of imperfect or continuative potential; as, ^^He may be
going"; the meaning of it in Hindustani being given, j^ ^^ \5W. ^
The ordinary imperative may denote continuity by prefixing ^ ;
" Nightly at the threshold of God continue giving forth the gift
of thy unworthiness ; and daily in thine own court constantly attend
to (the administration of) justice among the poor."
67. When the verbs ^jU»j\^ " to intend or wish," ^JuJ|y
" to be able," ^J^u^b and ^JUj^Ui " to be proper &r fit," are fol-
lowed by an infinitive, the final ^— of the infinitive is rejected ; as,
Cjij Ji\^ " I will go," or " I intend to go" ; d^iy J|y " I can
write." The verbs (JUj^b and ^Jwi^y are generally used imper-
sonally, in the third person singular of the aorist or present; as,
^J<?b "One ought to do." The mere root, ^oly> ^^ ^Jl*J\y
is also used impersonally; as, ^^ ^^i " One may do." We have
reason to believe, from observing the usage of the best writers of
the language, that when the infinitive precedes the above verbs, the
y^
final ^:1. is not rejected; as, o\jjul»3 lo^^ (iH*3 "^ cannot do
this deed"; so, jbU^^ ^^ls*i»J i^VV^ " ^ ^^ ^^* intend to send
you anywhere."
68. The infinitive, in Persian, is to be considered merely as
a verbal noun, and construed like any cither substantive. It
CONJUNCTIONS. 89
corresponds more with the verhal noun of the Latin, formed from
the supine hy changing the um into io or us, than it does with the
infinitive, gerund, or supine of that language; as, in this sentence,
:>/ CjJJj\ {JJ^'^ {2^^»i (J^^^V "-^ certain king made the
signal for the killing of a captive"; which, by Gentius, is rendered
into Latin, Captivum interfkere signum dederai; but the literal
rendering is. Ad captivi inteTfectionem^ or De captivi interfectione ;
hence the infinitive of an active verb, in Persian, governs a genitive,
and not an accusative, as in most European tongues.
69. Conjunctions, in Persian, are applied as in English or Latin ;
that is, when any thing contingent, doubtful, &c. is denoted, the
conjunction is usually followed by the subjunctive mood (aorist and
past potential) ; as, \3j3 CI^v>»- »? Ll»-t> j5o\3 jL-^ ^ sJ " Be
satisfied with a loaf (of bread), that you may not bend your back in
servitude"; so, t?^^j^jj<^^ ij'^^ ^'^dj^y' uJ^^v>? tg;jj>^
^^ If the augmentation of wealth depended upon knowledge, none
would be so distressed as the ignorant."
70. When a person has occasion to relate what he has heard
from another, the usage of the Persian, like that of most oriental
languages, requires that it should be done in the dramatic style.
This will be easily understood from the following examples:
" Zaid tells me that he will not come," j^\ ^\^ a/' Ju>^^ Lo Joj ;
literally, " Zaid says to me that * I will not come.' " From the
employing of the dramatic, instead of the narrative style, it will
often happto that the Persian will differ widely from the English
in the use of the persons and tenses of the verb, which may be seen
from the few following examples ; viz. ^^ Zaid said that his brother
was not in the'touse," Q^^^ ftil^-.^ c/*J^^ ^ C*-fl..S wMJ ;
literally, " Zaid said, * My brother is not in the house/ " So,
N
90 CONCLUSION.
^^ A poet committed a crime (on which account) the king ordered the
executioner to put him to death in his (the king^s) presence,"
lA^ ))3^ i:/' ^3j Jj «f ^^^ y^ ^^"h ^/^Jf^ ^^ 5
i, €. '^ The king ordered the executioner thus, < Put him to death
in my presence/ " It would he needless to add more examples
of this kind : the learner has merely to recollect, as a general
principle, that the person who relates a conversation that has
occurred commonly gives the ipsa verba of the parties of whom
he is speaking.
P. S. When the Student has read this Work through, as directed
in the last page of the Pre&ce, he will know enough of Persian to
understand the numerous idioms and phrases, from that language,
introduced into Hindiistani. Should he, however, he induced to
persevere in his Persian studies, let him proceed to the Gidistan
of Sa'di, and, after that, to the Anwari Suhaill of Husain Wa'iz.
In poetry, perhaps the best book to begin with is the Bostan of
Sa'di ; then the Iskandar-fidma of Nizami, or Firdausi's Shahnama ;
to conclude with the Dlwan of Hafiz. I mention these, not mierely
because they are standard works, but, being in print, they are more
likely to be met with tnan manuscripts..
D. R
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» CL^Sijiji Jilj tjji^-' > j1 jT bj _ Jj>^ ^ i\jt y ,ja»- Jj».
iVna^^WMi
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J " . . -
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GO > CO M
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D
<^ijM Cj\i\^o» \ 1
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« GG G^ G^^ Gi
G w ^f G ^
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_ lib ^uj. ^J^„^,i _ J vW viAL J^^ V «fi- u;4^j»
TTx ^^ -^ ^ -^ ^gr^
0^ G. GO
^ ^ Ji* » Ciii »»• (j^iJjS — C*a5 » j,iXiji- Jbp» eJ^i► «^
I e <^ijM c^\^\^a»>
c « t<.
^^jiij3^ ^^ J — r^j^^ o^-^ '/l^ p^ *^ w^^
isSiV ;/^ «^ »^> VW a»j> * (£^ (j^jW (^^ »v*feii» idjr
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G ^^
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C G^ G
Ui.U\ obl^a* 11*
^ ^
GOO ^G ^ • i
G GGV'Gifc G o
G ^G G G G G
so C P ^ G G
:**^
CJ?
^G W GO G G G
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C ^ t G G GO ^^
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^Ut* >i?-*' G • >, G
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_- 0-.1 jbu-? '>^ yJoS — OuHsi di3V eP — *^ J ^,
O^^ CO*C C^ *^
GO Of Cx'^ ^^ O
• Oi,jb >J^ tjJt^^V& ? J»d \;^ clfr
(a; • vXi ^ij ^\ Jbi5 J J^» y ^f^^ — C*»>. Jj eF
Ci)
^ G O C ^
C j^ G > A/'C '^ ^; tV' ■■■' G
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1 1 UiM oU^iSste-
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c^*^
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o
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«
CL^^^j
C ^ O ;^ W #
JV cy^^j^ JU jj*. «&i JH^^ t^.
^0 CW^O o &#
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*«
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C CM ^•ftj'^ t \
o ^ c* ^ c ^ o
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o
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C G,^^ G^'G ^ 9 C9
» C^\^ 1^' ^\i^^ -^Si vi^U t^V tttf?- * (J^l^ (;/• (^^ J^^
• ^K ^ S G C G /
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f^ 9 ^ 9 f f
c
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c
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0^
G^ G|^^ G G G
G^ G G G
G -^ G^> G G ^
I f ^
"^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^y .^-^ *" >» \ ^ ^
G ^ G/ G ^ G G^ f ^^
*-' G^ G 1^
9
G> ;' G
G / G C C
G -JG • G GG.G^ O
G G^ G c G G ^^ G G .
/ ^ ' G^ G ^ G^ G G
GOG GO /G
* ^jL-jb jyy^^^^ij^ «uycA«-ib jjjb^js*-^^ e)^^ »-^ «^ J
\ •• ^ ^ ^ ^
G ^ C' C. - G ^ G
* 5/ uJUo ^J^,.^Ji j^soju J — v>ii^ yif^ ^J>^ Jl^/ *
O O^ w^ ^ G H» O C^ G ^
— jj5jj\ ^i^\ ^jyj\* ip iW'j s5j33 c^ si\j .^joi^ rv
" S^-J^ ^ (^-^ **^^>* — "^^ "^^V^ W^-J^ * ^J^ s^^) J^ J
G^ G/G^ G^G^-'
«r Ow-j\ i:>ycj ^\jO J>' » dui*^ Jo- J^ uJ5ls>- ^.^ C^ 3;* ^^\
O/G ^ O^ O >0^
^ ^O M O G G
G G ^ G
^
ci^ cJ^\^st»-
O G • CO -^ C^ O^y
iSJ} ^j>^i j> ^ ^ o-»iji i];9.^\5 t_^j> ^tLoU ri
/ G G ^ G
C G / G G^^ G
y
^ G^ G G^ ^ / G
-^ — G^^' G G^ C f
y^ G ^ G
G G/^G ^ Gi G
^ ^G
^ ^
O^ O G
G ^ G G G
♦ j>i,b^jj-f y _ ^liS c^\jP ^^ tf\>S^ *b vW
G -JG • G GG.G^ O
G
GG^G c GG^^G G
/ f ' t. f O x* G^GG
G G G GO ^G
* ^JL-Jb ^y^^^ ^J^ »S Cj^\^ S^\y^j^ {J^^J*^ »-^ «i^ J
G ^ G C • G ^ G
OoSjjA JJi^\ (Vjjj\* Sp iW'j SSj^ C*^ «j], ;_^aa!^ f~V •
G^G G/G^ G^G^^
O/G ^ G^ G ^G^
/ ><'
y f\t IN «/ u o
jj «&» 5^ ]^ iiU 8U;»5b » i^ ^4i^ s&^^ cgJjD ""^
G^ G^ G G ^ 9
G G ^ G» <;^ G ' G
^,U\ tob\^s)».
€/» •'■'■ ^
c/ o o ^ f S
> _ »V^ ^y^ ^ji j>\S cii • cjL^ yi^
*
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\
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G G ^-' G /
•• • •
^^ ^ ^ •«
t/ji GG^G W /.
G^ G ^ G ^ C^
G f fVk
J^ \^ ^ *^];?;i ^}y-jCi ~ ^ ]jjijj U^Jy- 5>^
G/ ^ ^ ♦^ ^-^
1^ ^r^v ^^^^^^ J);> J^j^ * ^^. ^' ^*^ c.^ ^^^
V
G/ «* ^ .Ji C,^
*
J" C G G o^/ ^ G A
9 9 9 ** ^9 ^ ^ tf
«
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C G 7 . G/ ^ ' *^
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1-^ Gi-^ 9 O^f O G G
^ ' 99 9 9 ^9 ^ G
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C C G O ^ Gx-^-
Alt*-' •
4 A /^-i'^ '/ c
\OJ,\jo- — cJs^ eS'jJi ],</J*^ jSj (ii^^^ *^»>^^ »^J^ ^
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c
i.9 , 9 ^
/ .
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c* ^ C CO
tS^ «_>< OflS » t^^> u^\«r «^ Vj* j^ • «^^;^ V J*** J
• (.Ju^ 0.3U »jU6« bj5 J^ t^^ iy
^^ ^
X ^ ,♦ x" ^ •• -^
*^ o / c ^ o
' .« •-•
(i)j-9- «^ j5-W^ *«i*^ y ^^ *>- j*^ V — *«^»vi 1*
w^y, i>lii J^j J* V ^ — r^ i:;^ l;^' ^ ?y*rV
«^ 3y lib J\ CJJ . ? O4W tyiU j»<O^S» j^ jJ^ J^iJ;>
B
i
VOCABULARY.
PERSIAN AND ENGLISH
N.B. — In order that the Student may not waste time in useless search, he must
be careful to reduce each word to its simple form» by stripping it of such prefixes
and additions as it may happen to have, before he looks for it in the Vocabulary.
The prefixes are, lat, i, used as a preposition before a noun, and, in verbs, pre-
fixed, as i or ^, to the Future, and, redundantly, to the Preterite. 2dly, i or jJ,
and *« or -J^, prefixed to verbs to denote negation (Gram. p. 48. No. 40).
3dly, jJ« or jj^ prefixed to verbs, to denote the Present and Imperfect Tenses.
The ordinary affixes are, 1st, the ^-, denoting unity, &c. (Gram. p. 30. No 29.) ;
as, fc'^^^ " a certain person*' (in the Vocabulary, look for ^jos^)* 2dly, The
plural terminations, J\, ^^\S, ^U, and U (Gram. p. 25. No. 25.), together with
the termination )j/ 3dly, The terminations added to form the various persons of
the verb; and, lastly, pronominal affixes, >♦ — , lU — , ^ — -. Vide Grammar,
p. 33. No. 32, and more fully in the Syntax. By attending to these few hi^is
the learner will be spared some trouble, and the Vocabulary will incur less
censure on the score of deficiency.
«
c—^l 56, water, splendour.
Jtfc)l A^l;>^ IbraMm Adham^ name of
a pious sovereign of Balkh.
jj^l abru^ honour, reputation.
^1 ahlah, foolish, s. a fool.
\j»*^\ aHshy or dtash^ fire; anger.
liliJl ittifakan^ accidentally, by chance.
jUl asar^ traces; a pound weight
d^Ujll isbati confirmation, proof.
^ asaVy mark, sign, vestige, efiect.
Ubl asna^ middle; dar eisna^e an, or
dar m asna; in the mean while.
j\P^ ihHfaZ^ taking care of one's self.
yj^^>s^ ahmaky foolish, a fooL
Jl^l ahwaly circumstances, afiairs,
condition.
J^i ahwaly a squinting person, one
that sees double.
j\^^ ikhtiyar^ choice, power.
j&- 1 akhir^ the end, at last ; akhir ul
amr, in short, finally.
)fc)l ada^ pa3nnent, fulfilment ; cu/a kar--
dan or aakhtan, to pay, fiilfiL
c^4>) cuiab^ politeness, courtesy.
^\
(
aJI Adafiu the first man ; hence i^^^l
a man, one of the human race.
CLJi)!^^ iradatf or }iS\J\ irada^ will, in-
clination, intention.
^jj\ arzan, cheap, worthy.
^jj\ arzu, desire; arzu-mafkl^ desiTGa&,
longing for.
^o;l arkan, pillars; arkan-i datdat,
pillars of state, nobles, courtiers.
i^T arij yea, yes, yea verily.
j,\ az, from, by, with, than.
i^lj I azad, firee, emancipated ; a hermit
j)J I azar^ affliction, vexation. •
^^1^1 azan, thence, therefore.
^fc>^l azmudan, to try, test.
^^UmI asatm^ names, or a list of names.
yjjju**] asayish^ ease, indulgence.
u^Uuw) Qshaht means ; goods and chattels.
^.^^^1 asp, a horse; also (.«^^mi).
fc)ll>Ml ftstdd, master, preceptor.
^jUamI istadauj to stand, persist
^l^sduM) ustukhafiy a bone.
cUjLw) i8tima\ hearing.
jJoCmI Iskandar, Alexander the Great
j\iMt\ asfarj travels : plur. of ^Aam.
^\ ism, a name, noun in Grammar.
«Uum) asmar, stories, conversations.
^UjmI asman, the sky, the heavens.
^JmmI asUdan, to repose, be at ease.
^ - Vwl astb, trouble, annoyance.
.Afcwl astfj a prisoner, captive.
Jjds.^1 istabaly a stable.
m) aslan, at all, in the least
qB^I itla, information, notice ; Httila^
investigating.
j[^\ izhdr, manifestation, pointing out
2 ) j*\
JUJcI i'iim^, confidence, reliance.
c^jjcl ^rah, an Arab of the desert, or
an uncivilized wandering Arab.
jUI aghdz, a beginning.
^Ijuil ttfiadan, to fall, to happen.
\Jii\ tftira, calumny, slander.
^jJj^l dfridanj to create (root jo*;*')-
^ J I q/riin, creating ; applause ; bravo !
^iVaGI afgandan, to cast, throw.
tJlS^ iflds, poverty, destitution.
^ AkSlil Afldtuny Plato, the Grecian sage.
L-.^llf I akdribf relatives, relations.
t)J\ ikrdr, confirmation, confession.
yi\ aksafy most, firequently.
^ J^ aknun, now, at present.
so) dgdh, aware of, informed.
jS\ agar, if; ^^»^^ agarcM, though.
Jl a/, the Arabic article " the,'* prefixed
to Arabic nouns. (Gr. p. 18.)
JCo!) alhatta, in truth, assuredly.
CUlaJSI Utifat, notice, attention.
fc)W' ilhad, idolatry, infidelity.
JW' al-hal, at present, now.
Ji^lac)' al'hdsiU in shorty finally.
JJI Uzdm, conviction.
iuS^\ al'kissa, in short, finaUy.
aUI ^//a^, God.
^\ Hahi, Divine. The Deity.
Ut ammo, but, nevertheless.
^Ut atndn, protection, safety.
Ci^UI amdnat, a deposit, a thing en-
trusted, or consigned to one.
^IfSX^^ imtihdn, trial, examination.
^J^^\ dmadan, to come, to be (r. u^D.
j^ amr, matter, af&ir, subject
jyj^ imroz, to-day (for tn-roz, this day).
J^
\
(
\^^j^ ' amokhtan^ to learn, to teach.
iXA^I ummed, hope, expectation.
jl^4\x«» ummedwar, hopeful,
yA^i amir, a commander ; a grandee,
^i an, that, it^ he, she. *
jUil ambar, a store, quantity.
^Uil amban^ a leathern bag.
lac I anja^ there, in that place.
^u:s? I anchunafiy su^h as that, so.
^taC I ancAt, that which, whatsoever.
^^IjjI anddkhtan to throw.
AiJji andam^ body, person.
J Jo I andaTj within, inside.
^•^i)Jl andarun^ within.
VilJJjl andak, a little, a few.
^jJ] andakz^ a small portion.
^IjMi)) insafty man, the human race.
UijLa}) insafy justice, one's right.
fM in am, a gpratuity or present
j(^l ifikary denial, refusal.
vj:,^m(il angushty the finger.
t ^ lAijI angushUtrtj a ring.
^^1 angurf a grape, raisin,
etyl all?^'a^ various sorts or kinds.
A>l ana, a nominal coin, the sixteenth
part of a rupee.
ji o, 3d pers. pron. he, she, or it.
J 1^1 atvaZf sound, noise» voice.
^j^\ awardan, to bring (r.^l orj^l).
J^I awmaU the first ; at first
Sii^ aulddy family^ oppring.
^^^kfl^.^ I dwekhtanyto cling to» lay hold of.
(Jjbl ahlt people, men.
{^Jm\ dhangy design, intention.
^^JJ^\ dhan-gar, a worker in iron, a
blacksmith, an armourer.
3 ) ^
4^1 at, interject O !
ul dydy sign of interrogation.
Jul AiydZy a man's name.
^LijI eshdfiy plur. of ^1, they.
UjI tfd payment, fulfilment
^UjI Imdny faith, conscience.
^\ m, pron. he, she, it, or this.
I:f\jf3 mjdy here, in this place.
^^^;AA:s:\j) inchuniny such as this, thus.
jiVftJbl inkadar, to this extent, so much.
J(Cx>l mki, he who, that which.
iuj I d-ma, a mirror ; times ; A(ir-a-«rta,
always, at all events.
7^ ba (in Arabic, 60, a preposition, by,
with, in, to ; W, verbal prefix.
b bdj in company with, possessed of
j!i 6ae^ the wind ; bar bad dddan^
to g^ve to the wind, to cast away.
sltfc>U bddshdhf a king.
j\j bdr^ a burden ; time, as in the phiase
yak-bdr^ once ; du-bar, twice.
sjj bdrUi behalf ; dar bar a e kase, in
behalf of any one.
Ju bdz, a hawk : as an adverb, this
word signifies iteration or repetition ;
as, bdz raf tarty to go back ; bdz
kardariy to put back, or open Ca
door« &c.); bdz namudafiy to de-
clare, shew forth.
J)j\j bdzuVy a market-place, market
j^b bdzty a game, play ; bdzl ydjtany
to win the game.
^Jo :U bdzzdaut to play, gamble.
L^^%.&1> bd'is, cause, reason, motive.
t^
( 4 )
0^
cb bagh^ a garden^ an orchard.
^UcU bagMan^ a gardener. '
^U 6a A^, remaindery remaining.
CJ\i baky {ear, hesitation.
SO bald, above, on the top.
JflU W/*tift entirely, " in toto."
A) bdm^ roof of a boose,
(>ltX«b bamddd^ in the morning.
,ZXi^ bdngy a voice, sound, cry ; bang
zadan, to call out
jffi) bdwar^ true, creditable ; bdwar kar-
dan or daskian, to believe.
dii[e^^j^[) bdwarchi'khdna^ (literally)
cook-house ; a kitchen.
>2bl> bdhanij together, united.
^^^LmjU bdyistan^ to be proper^ neces-
sary : generally used impersonally ;
as, Jjb odyadf it is necessary, &c.
i:^^ bachcha, the young of any animal.
^^S jJLsC . bakhsJadan^ to bestow, for-
give, spare.
(Jj^. bakhtl^ a miser; stingy.
iXj 6ae;?, evil, bad : much used in com-
position ; as, i^^^, bad-khuey of
ill-temper; ^^«j Jj bud-rue, ill fa-
voured.
^UiVi badndniy a bad name, reproach.
4>lf)t>o badnihd,d, depraved, perfidious.
WtiVi baddnjd, (WlJ^) in that place.
.»3j ba-dar, out, to the door.
_J[ Jb^ badin^ for ^t Jb, in this ; hereby.
j) bar, on or upon, for, at
jj^j> bardbar, literally, breast to breast ;
equal.
jSij) barddar and birddar, brother.
^l^J^ birddarunrf^ worthy of a brother.
^g/y^\ji bar-amadan, to come up, come
to pass.
cT^^l/ bar-awardanj to bring np,
prolong.
i^iji barde, for the sake of; barde
kkuddj for God's sake.
^jXm»1»^ bar-khoMtany to rise up, to
depart.
jIj^ bar-ddr kaslddan or kardan, to
hang, to crucify.
^«^lj^ bar-ddshtan, to hold up, to
carry off
^ji burdan (root, 6ar), to bear, carry
away, bring.
^i3Jb^ bar kandan, to pluck out, to
eradicate.
dSj} birka, a pond, pooL
^J^ji bar-gashtan, to return.
^JjJiXASji bar-gumdshtan, to send forth.
Jj} biranjy rice.
^jt bar-o, on him, her, &c.; biraw,
imperative oiraftan, go thou.
fitij^ barJiam, confused, offended, enraged.
JUJbji barahna, uaked, bare.
^j> birydn or burydn, baked, fried.
ji^^jji Buzurfmihr, a man^s name.
^jj> buzurgt great: applied to age,
it means, old, reverential.
^jmJ bas, enough ; bas kardan, to have
done.
LUmj bisdt, a bed, carpet, covering.
Jxmi bistar^B. bed, couch.
^jAmiJ bastan (band) to bind.
jUjuuj bisydr, much,^^any, very.
djo bad, at the end, after : generally
applied to time.
1
w
( 5
Jl5j bakkal^ an oil-merchant, a grocer.
li baldf evily misfortune, calamity.
Jj Balkh, name of a city.
^^liMj bulddny cities, regions,
^i^ bcda\ swallowing, devouring.
dh bcUkiy but, rather, on the contrary.
JoL bulandy tall, high, great
Jj 6a/a, yea, verily, indeed.
ijiji^. hina-bar-m^ on this account
t3Jb 6an£^, fetter, desire.
^JsJu bandagz, servitude, submissioir.
^jJo banda, a slave, servant.
4^^ bu or 65e, fragrance, smell.
^t>y buddUy to be, exist (r. ^ or ^l^).
^ 6a, by, with, in.
^ dih, good, better.
^l4> bahana, pretence or pretext
Jx^ bihtaTy better ; bihtann^ best
8^ bahra, a share, portion ; utility^
^ be, without, deprived of.
jixf biydr, imper. of arvardafit to bring.
^Uj bayan^ explanation, narration.
i<^L5^ 6262, a lady, mistress.
&>\jiXfha%an(L, earnest-money.
Ir^U 66/0, out of place, improper.
jclJscsjj be-jigari, timidity, cowardice.
^U^.j be-chara^ helpless, forlorn.
fCjj^s^^ be-chzztj destitution.
Ia£S\j 6^.&aya, shameless, impudent.
f^ behh, root of a tree.
i^j^f^ be-kharjij non-expenditure,
economy,
jli^oj be-dar^ watchful, awake.
^4)^jii berun^ out^ outside.
v^^»»M bist^ twenty.
aJUju bat ana, earnest-nloney.
Jji£ S^ ^'^Mt insane, stupid.
iLa^jo bfL'tfak'bdry all at once.
^LGj begdna^ a stranger.
jUJj dJmar, sick, unhealthy.
(^Ujj 629nan, sickness.
^^ &«», see thou (r. of ^J^yiS),
(Juo 6m2, the nose.
U4JJ be-tvafd, faithless, Mse.
Sfc)^ behuday foolish, vain.
U pa, the foot
lA^'v P^P^^9 foot-covering, slipper.
sImiJU pddshdh, a king.
teyU pdrcha^ a garment
^M^\j Pdrsi or Para**, Persian.
^b />ara» a bit, fragment ; pdra kar-
dan, to break to pieces.
^j*.U jpa«, a watch of the day or night;
pdS'bdn^ a sentinel ; pas ddsAtany to
keep watch.^
(JUmiL) pasbanty keeping watch.
cJU pdk, clean; pdk kardan, to wipe.
iijj^\j pdk»z<i, pure, clean.
Xai\j pdnsad, five hundred.
^Jis^v pukhtafiy to cook.
jJo padar or pidar^ father^
^jSi^Jii^ pazlraftan (r. pazirX to sus-
tain, receive.
^ /?wr, full ; par, a wing X)r feather.
L^lJ^ partdb, aim ; partdb kardan,
to aim or take aim.
^I^-lfc)^ parddkhtan, to accomplish.
SJ^ parda, a veil, screen.
U*V^ ptir^et^n, to ask, interrogate.
jlj^ parwdZy flight
Jj^
( 6 )
\jo
</-
m
i:A}ji P^^^^^^^^ to cherish, to rear.
jSjJfij} parhezgar, temperate, pure.
{J*H;i pO'f^<i^^ to soar, to fly.
yjNj pas, then, afler, finally; pas opesh
kardan, to demur, make evasion.
•amj pisafy a son, a boy.
OJWJ pasandy agreeable ; pasand ama-
dan^ to be agreeable.
^Jj JOamj pasandidanf to approve o(
to admire.
C^^mj pushtj the back.
^Ujy^ pashemany penitent, regretful.
&ujk} pasha, a givat.
z\Xj pandh, aid, shelter, asylum.
ijjo pumba^ cotton; pumba-farosh^
cotton-seller.
^Jo panjy five ; panjuniy fiilh.
^\spj panjah, fifty.
jjjLmI4>Ju pinddshtany to consider,
imagine, believe.
c:^>AM^ post, skin, hide.
^(X^M^ pos/udan, to put on (a garment),
to cover, conceal ; poshamdan, to
cause to be clothed, coveredt &c.
tCh^.piyada, a pedestrian, a pawn (at
chess).
iJOj paida, manifest, bom, created.
kU ptr, old, aged, an old man^ an elder.
^Lu piirahan, a garment.
^^Sfc>^ pesh, before, in front
AxytJo peshma, former, past.
JCmL^ pesha^ a trade, avocation, or pro-
fession.
CJjJ pat A:, a runner or courier.
Jjc» pi/, an elephant ; also Jji /i/.
U /a, that, so that, until.
w^U /aM^ subjected, subdued.
j\s»Jj tdjdaty crown-holder, a king.
J^ tar, dark ; also tank,
AibjlJ taziyanay a scourge, whip ; ^bii-
yana zadoHj to flog.
^Jii^ tdf tan, to turn, twist, revolve, shine.
(J^lS /a-ai»;7efiA meditation,CQnsideration.
^MjjJ tabassum, a smile.
CL>;l£^ tijarat, traffic, merchandise.
(Jj^l^ tajdhtdi pretending ignorance.
taja^sus, search, inquiry.
tq^mz, leave, permission.
^jAm*^* tahsm, praise, commendation.
tahayyuft astonishment
takhty a throne.
^ tukhfit, g^n, seed-stone.
jiit^ tadtnr, arrangement, contrivance.
^SjJit\^ tarasJudanyXo cut ofl^ cut away.
iidS taraddud, perplexity, dismay.
^iUSliM^ tarsdmdan, to terrify : causal
of tarsidan, from the root iars, fear.
^43JkMy tarsitkin, to be afiraid.
1^ tursh,^ sad, stem, morose.
wJ ^arA;, abandonment, forsaking.
viJ/ TwrJfe, a Turk or Turkoman.
CL ^w.1 /t<«/', for tu-astj (it) is of thee
or thine.
s
u.A^Jl> tashrlf, ennobling; tashrlf
burdan, to honour an inferior with
a visit ; to condeao^ad.
i^ylJ tashmshy disturbance, trouble.
(J^t^^ tasdiky verifying, confirmation.
iiyfi> tasmVy a picture.
Cj^UJ ta^dkuby pursuit
\jo
( 7 )
'^
jJIjo ta'ala, He is exalted; God.
C«-^>jU /rt'6, labour, fatigue.
j>^ ta*btrj interpretation, explanation.
i.Z>^sj^ ta'ziyaty condolence.
^»jJa«j> ta'xtm^ magnifying, revering.
CU^^IaJ tafawut^ distance, difference (in
m
Space).
— ;AJf tafarruj^ enjoying or viewing (of
scenery, &c.)
^^so tafalckur, thought, contemplation.
UoIaJ takaza, dunning, demanding.
(w^yll taknbj proximity, presence.
JLflftJ takstr, delinquency, crime.
C^jiXG takzzby accusation of falsehood.
i^JS tag, bottom, depth ; dar tag^ un-
derneath, subjected to.
(^SJ taloshy search, investigation.
ImUJ tamashay a spectacle, show.
AaS tamam, all, entire, the whole.
iKjuuJ tambthy admonition, reproof.
lf)b tanha, alone.
^jAMoly tawanistany to be able.
jJ ^i/,. thou.
23jy taubtkhy blaming, chiding.
^ J tuliit name of a certain weight.
u^y tafvakkufy delay, putting off.
JoJ tawangdr, powerful, rich.
y^:^^^A^ tuhmat, accusation, calumny.
Ci^vJU^ tahniyaty congratulation.
^-^ /a^, or tiMi empty ; taM-dast^
empty-handed, destitute.
jUS taiydr, readv prepared.
jJ fFr, an arrow.
j'jJl^ ttr-andaZy an archer; tSr-an-
dazi, archery.
jaJ teZy sharp, swifl, violent.
j^->iulJ Ttmur and Taimury the far-
famed conqueror, commonly called'
Tamerlane; properly Taimur-langy
i.e* Taimur the Lame.
iJL^ sabeUy proof, confirmation,
w.-'iy sawaby reward, retribution (in a
future state).
L>' ja, place ; ja-kardan, to occupy a
place, to settle.
^ji^yJ^ jasuSy a scout <w spy.
<L«l>. jamUy a garment.
^jl>* yaw, soul, life.
<w^l^ janiby side, direction.
^fW- ^oe, anywhere, in some place.
^j}^ jabran-y forcibly.
S^- jaddf grandfather, ancestor.
]di>' judOy separate, apart.
<xiU^ jurmanay a fine or penalty.
?J JkJ^ jarida, a memorandum-book.
^^^Ujj*- justan (root .j**), to seek.
j^jigaTy the liver.
Sk:>- jaUady an executioner.
Sjj>- jaldy quick, swift
c:^^Ub>> Ja^Tta^a/*, a number, crowd.
•^ ya»»\ an assembly ; jarn shudaUy
to assemble.
*^a:^ jafm\ all, the whole.
^Sxxi^ jufnJndany to shake, move (in-
transitively) ; hence, jumbamdafiy
to shake, move (actively).
ViLAa^- ^ait^, war, battle.
(Jjuv:>- jangaly a forest of thickets.
^JXx>. jangU, wild, untamed.
\
( 8 )
&
i^t^ jawahj an answer.
\]y^ jawan, a young man^ juvenis*
jlb]^jawahiry}ewe]s; jawaMr-khana,
the jewel-house, treasury.
i:f^y^ Jai««^an, a cuirass, coat of mail.
c^ ju\ hunger, appetite.
jl^^ jahaz, a ship, boat
^^^jahan, the world, an age.
i^^xyjaib or jeb J a pocket, purse; also,
a mantle.
,4>U- chddar or chddir, a mantle, sheet.
tj^ charat resource, remedy.
oJ^l>> chashL the mid-day meal.
xU- cAgA, a pit, well.
I ->• chirdi why ? wherefore ? chtra-kiy
because, since.
cly^ chiraghj a lanthom, lamp,
tt^^^ cAariirfaw, to graze, feed.
>As^ chashm, the eye ; hope.
• j^Sjj- chi'kadar^ to what extent ? how
much?
^fcJo^ chaktdan, to drop, to fall by drops.
iij!j>- chigunttt what sort? how? why?
^U^ cAtinan, like that, such as that
jJt^- chand, some, several.
il>jJl»- ckand-bdr, several times, often.
J (XJb^ chandm. so much, as much as this.
(Jjjl»» changulf a hook, a claw.
^jUL>- cAt«mn, such as this, so much.
^^ chun, like, when ? how ? why ?
(«^«»-cAo6orcM&, a stick, piece of wood.
<)c^ cAe, that, that which, what ? for.
X^ chahdr^ four ; cAaAarum, fourth.
^joi»- chtdan (root ^^)» to gather,
collect.
cA«;r, a thing, an afl&ir.
cAe^/, What is it ? for cAl and
cut or Aos/.
Jft>U. hazik, skilful, expert
Jwi0l»- Ao^, result ; hdsU fcardan, to
acquire ; hasii shudany to be ac*
quired.
j0c\^ haztr, present, in attendance ; A5-
zirdn^ those attending.
Jl»- /to/, condidon; dar halj imme-
diately.
Sl^ halan, now, presently.
c:^l»- hdiat, condition, state.
J^U- hdmilt bearer, carrier.
^-«ijksw habsh^^ an Abyssinian or Negro.
^U>- tidtha^ a particle, a grain.
^J>h aK^ hardm-zaddy unlawfid-bom,
a reprobate.
^U^ hirmdHy disappointment
hartft a rival, companion.
hasady envy, malice.
hashmati pomp, retinue.
hissa, a share, portion.
d^^^ hazrat, presence. Tour Majesty,
Highness, &c.
j^^^ huzur, presence, the royal pre-
sence, the King's Court
^l»- kakky truth, right ; hakk tddla^
God Almighty.
Sa>a>^ hahtka or haktkat, truth, cir-
cumstance.
d^l^ hikdydty stories, tales : plur. of
c:^!^ hikdyaty a story, narrative.
^»^ hukm^ order, sentence (of a Judge).
&
( 9 )
U^^ hukama^ sages (plur. of haldm),
hukama-iU- cisr^ the wise men of
the age.
^^^ C" »- hikmat^ sagacity, contrivance.
|iJj>^> hakim^ a sage» a doctor.
himakatf folly, stupidity.
humk, folly.
LMk>- Aam/, a burden ; haml kardan,
to impose a burden, to assail.
1^ HawQi Eve, the first woman.
^f^^ ^\^ hatvala kardan^ to give in
charge^ to consign.
{jo^ hawZy a pond, tank for bathing.
U». Aojfa, shame, modesty.
ci^U». Aoya/, life, lifetime.
iJlti^ ^^^o^Uf astonished, bewildered.
Cl^^A>. hairat^ astonishment.
^uU». Mla^ trick, stratagem.
aJI:>- khadiniy an attendant, a slave.
^^^U- khastan (r. Me;:;), to stand up.
Jo\^ kkdtir^ the heart, soul ; khdtir
jam' dasJUan^ to be of good cheer ;
khdtir nigah ddahtan, to cherish,
to win or possess the heart
K^i^ khdk, the earth, dust
Jl^ khcdt, bare, empty.
^yj^ khdmoshy silent
^Mv«l»- kkdmosMf silence.
^(»- k/idfiy an inn; also a Tartar title,
lord, ruler; vulgarly, Cham.
^l»- khdna^ a house, mansion.
^1^ ^U- khdna-khardln, ruin of one's
house, destruction.
^J\>- khd'in, a deceiver, treacherous.
A»- khabar or khabr, news, information.
^lOjjki- khabar-ddr, attentive* aware.
C>s^ khajalj ashamed, abashed.
Cl^Jbs^ khajlaty shame» bashfiilness.
\s^ khtuldj God, a master.
jJ^)iX». khuddwandf a lord, master;
khtidawand-4-ganj^ the Lord of the
treasure, the Most High.
c:^^^J^ khidmat, service, presence.
>- khar^ an ass ; khar-gosh^ a hare.
--^I^ khardb, destruction, evil, bad.
^iL#L>- ^At«ra«ani, a native of Kho-
rasan, a Bactrian.
^^iSJl^ khurdndafij to cause to eat;
to give food, to treat
dj^'khurdf Bmall, little; Mero^, wisclom;
khiradmand, wise, sensible.
\^j^ khurmd, the fruit of the date-tree.
^^j^^^ khurosj, a cock.
^Jj^ kharidan, to buy, purchase,
^dsi^ kharitaj a purse.
^]^ khizdnaf a treasury.
d.^LM»- khasdrat, loss, damage.
^JjUgM»- khuspidan, to sleep.
Jijl/i 1/**^ Khusru or Khusrau Parmz^
a celebrated king of Persia.
^»A». khishm or khashm^ anger, indig-
nation.
dyXJ^ff*- khusknud^ also JyLt^, con-
tent, joyful, pleased.
>- kha^ty a goat
>- khattj a letter, an epbtle.
l]o>> A;Aa^a, an error, failure, missing.
^..^wOa>- khadb, a preacher.
^]1>- khalds^ liberation, freedom.
i2l»- khUqf, the contrary, opposite.
&
( 10 )
i\i
khil'at^ a dress of honoar.
C:^^L>- khalrvat, privacy, retirement
^iX;^^ khalidaUj to pierce into the
flesh (as a thom)^ to prick.
^J^^ khuftan, to sleep(r.L— /«**^ ArAiifp).
i^Ji^ khunsa^ a hermaphrodite.
HdJ^ khandOj smile, laughter.
^Jj4>Jl»- khandtdan^ to smile, laugh.
y»- or (^•d- khu or A;Ai^e, temper, dis-
position.
u^[p- A:Aa6, sleep, dream. (V. Gr. p.lC. a.)
^iXaj!^ khabUdan^ to sleep.
^U^ khaja, a master, merchant
»I%^ JrAar, devouring ; used in com-
position ; as, bisyar-khary a glutton.
^jAm»Ij»- khasian, to wish, will, desire.
^iXil^ khandan^ to read, to call.
jftL>. khahar^ a sister.
^■J>j'^ ArA56, good, beautiful.
-^*i- kkubSj goodness, beauty, virtue.
i3«»- khudy self, a friend.
•»>- A:AMr> food.
Jjift»- khurd, small, little.
^jji^ khttrdan, to eat> to swallow.
1^^ khushy pleasant, good; khush
dmadan^ to be agreeable, to be
welcome.
t^j^ khtishty joy, pleasure.
^\Sm*^ khushddman, a mother-in-
law, a wife's mother.
Jy^^ khushnudy pleased, satisfied.
^J>- khush a, a bunch of grapes.
^jiji^ khesh, self (Vid. Gr. p. 12. 6.)
c:^Lj^ khiydnaty treachery, dishonesty.
c:^ jji3- khairiyat, welfare, safety.
^^tib dddan, to give, pay (r. St) rfiA).
yd duTy the gallows, a gibbet : in com-
position it means possession.
i£^^jit^ ddrogha, the head man of an office.
^jl^lj ddshtan, to possess, hold, have.
^j^iJ ddmany skirt of a garment
l3)j £^na, wise, prudent
^jLuJtj ddnistan, to know, to think.
JJUJlilj danUhmandy wise, learned.
^Ij e/ana, a grain, seed.
I*jlfc> dd-im, always, perpetual.
jj^d dukhtary a daughter, a damsel.
JS-t) dakhly entrance.
^4> (/ar, a door ; prepos. in, into, at ;
ba-dar^ out, to the door.
j'jd dardZy long, distant ; also dirdz.
^4V«I^4> dar-dmadan, to enter.
U^-'jlf^, e/ar-a«?eiA/a«, to contend,
grapple with.
^^bjJ darbdn (also e/anmn), a door-
keeper, a porter.
c:^^>y J darakhty a tree, a stalk.
djJ dardy pain (bodily or mental).
^iXUrf^^J dar-rasidany to arrive, enter.
c:^%*o^4> durmty right, true.
i*; J diraniy money, a small silver coin.
^^U j(> dar^mdndaUy to be destitute,
to be "in a fix," to be weary.
^|i|^J darwdza^ a door, a gate.
c.y J durogh, a lie, falsehood : durogh-
gOy a liar.
^;<^fa> daruHj in, inside, within.
jiJCJj»;fc> * darweshy poor, a religious
mendicant
^ J dar^ham, together, contracted ;
J
(X>^
( 11 )
^^
rue dar-ham kasMdan, to be of-
fended, to firown.
u^t> darycLy the sea, a river.
Cl^bjfc) daryafii discovery, compre-
hension.
^^\j>^fc> dar-yaftan^ to discover, under-
stand.
&^^4> dartcha, a window.
j^^4> dar-zn, in this.
i3; J fi?<«;2:cf, a thief, a robber.
(^Ji'J dtizdiy theft ; ba-duzdt raftan^
»
to be stolen, to f^o by theft
^43j Jf J duzdtdan, to steal.
c:^AAM(> fi^a^/, the hand.
jUa*/4> dasiar, a turban.
*3;^c:^s»wi> dast'burd, victory (in play,
war, &c.)
jyuM4> dastur, rule, custom.
^^^J dushman, an enemy.
4^.AMt) dushmanJj enmity, hostility.
aU^J dtishndm, abuse.
lct> du'a, prayer, supplication.
4^^ J or i^fa> dawa, a claim, request.
Jbj dqftar, a volume, a book.
»9i> fl?a/^, repelling, warding off.
^jiJ e/a/7», burying, hiding underground.
Jfa> 6i?27» the heart, mind ; dU-tangy dis-
tressed in heart ; dil-juh seeking the
heart, kindness, courtesy.
Jfli) dalki a dress worn by religious
mendicants.^
jSj ^a/;z7, a bucket.
At) e/am, a breath, a moment ; efi^m,
the tail.
L^St) dummal, also Joij dumbed, a
tumour, a sore.
JuJj dumbali stem, rear, behind.
^IjjJ danddn, a tooth.
Uij dunydf the world, the present life-
^J ^t/y two.
L J daiva, medicine, cure,
y^ ^fa> du-pahr, the second watch, noon,
midnight.
jjj (/i/r» distance, far, remote.
j^j^d dozakhf helL
Ci^NMjJ c/o«^, a friend, companion.
(.>Mj4> dfo^^e, friendship.
(^^J 6i?oM the shoulder; last night
^uUuMjfa) doshma, of or during last night.
^l>jJ dukan, a shop» office.
(kjrJjJ daulat, wealth, fortune.
j^^d dufvum, the second, secondly.
^Joji> daimdan, to run.
>jijj duyumi the same as duwum.
^4> (;?aA) ten : 6i?/A, a village : also, give,
root of dadan, to give.
^^t^jylzbJ dihamdan, to cause to give.
^lA2tJ dikhan, a villager, a peasant
t_5J fl?J, yesterday; yesternight
lb J diyar, a country, kingdom,
c:^^*) diyanat, probity ; diyanatdoTf
honest
jljjj diddr, a. sight, an interview.
^tiJ J 6i?2C?an, (root ^^ bin), to see,
experience.
Jj^J -dlroZy yesterday.
^■yAmj>4> di'Shabt yesternight
jC^J digafi another, again.
lUjifa) dindr^ name of a coin, a denarius.
J\^J^ dtwdr, the wall of a house, &c.
^Uj diwdna or devdna, mad.
t^Vi
( 12 )
^j
i&>]0 zcHka the palate, taste.
^^jjJ^l ^d xu'lkamain^ two-homed, an
epithet applied by the Arabs to Alex-
ander the Great
\j rahatt tranquillity, enjoyment.
j^j raz, a secret.
t\j rastf straight, rights true.
^tXij^ randafh to drive away, send,
dismiss.
^f^l; rawtf a narrator, historian.
}s\j rah, road, path.
^j ruhm or ruhum, mercy, pity.
^^4^ rahman^ merciful, compassionate.
ff^ rafmrh gracious, forgiving.
4^j rukh the cheek ; the castle at chess.
rukhsat, dismissal, leave.
^\jj razzak^ The Bestower ; God.
^43aiLM^ rasamdan^ to send, convey.
^j rasan, a rope, string.
^tVJU; raaldan^ to arrive, reach.
6jJUj raahldy wise* upright
\^j rizd, satisfaction, consent
Cl^lfi; riayat^ observance ; ri'ayat
kardan^ to observe, maintain,
ij^^^oc; ra'tyat, subject, people.
^JjSj raftan (root ^j ra/w\ to go, move.
Ji rafu^t repair, mending,
iyi rafUgar^ a repairer, mender.
^j ranjj sorrow, vexation, pain.
^iVjsr^j ranjzdariy to ^eve^ vex.
^j ru or 4^j^ rue, the face ; rilic^rUy
in presence, face to face.
«
^yj rawafij going ; the soul, spirit
i\j^j robahy a fox ; robah-baeha, a fox-cub.
Hu ^P^* silver, a rupee.
^XJ ^piy^i & rupee, a silver coin,
value about two shillings.
jjj rozy a day, time in general.
JzJV ^ozgar^lihiime^ the world, fortune.
ifj rah, a road, path ; rahguzartj a
highway ; rahzany a highwayman.
^Joibb^ rahamdafij to release, rescue^:
causal of ^J^j tastan^ (r. tj rah).
^^y^^j rekhtauy to spill, destroy.
Jlj reZf a crumb, particle.
.UamJ; rtstnan^ a rope, chord.
^JSj J mA, the beard, a suit of clothes
for festive occasions; reshy a sore,
a wound.
J
td\j zada^ bom, a descendant : used in
comp. ; as, skah-zada, bom of a king.
Qfj zagh, a crow, a raven.
t^Jbij zahidy a holy man, a hermit
^jjlj zOyidan^ to bear, bring forth.
^\ zaban, the tongue, a language.
^y>j zabufh a captive, a dupe.
js>-j zi/Ty hindering, force, threat
^^^J zadan (r. ^J zan\ to strike, inflict
jj zar^ gold, money, wealth.
^^^^]jj zard'atj cultivated ground.
imZ^J zishty hideous, ugly ; ziaht-rue,
of an ugly face ; zisht-kMief of a
vile temper.
^^Uj zamWy time, season, an age.
jjjt«) zanAUy earth, land, region,
^j 5ran, a wife, woman.
lit zina^ fomication, rape.
^1jj| zinddfiy a prison, a j^l.
^Sij zindaka, idolatry, impiety.
ift^j zindagi^ existence, life.
^Si) zinda, alive.
jl^J zinhdr, take care ! beware !
dtj zud, soon, quick, speedily.
j^J zor, force, violence.
ifjb^ zit/ada, more, increase.
uk) ^iy^^» loss, damage.
^J zer, beneath, below.
l^J «Jra or ztra-lcU because, since.
^yiM*JJ ztstafiy to live, exist
^^J zirii a saddle.
j^pt^-U* sdkhtan, to make, frame, form.
d^N^LM tfa'a^, an hour, an instant.
JIaw sa/, ja year.
^j^tw *an, mode, manner ; chi-san, how ?
J^scLm saniha^ revelation (of the mar-
vellous.)
^jmjL* soris, a gioom* a manager.
^Lm saych shade, shelter.
V^«.^\JgM sabab, cause, reason.
^A»w «a6i^, a cup, jar, pot, pitcher.
jXm sipar, a shield, target
^2)t^J^ supurdan or sipurdan (r. tlxw
8ipar)y to entrust, consign.
^ Jyuj situdan, to praise.
^^Um sutun, a pillar, prop.
K2J^a:***sakhawat^ liberality, munificence.
Ci^As;**' sakhty hard, strong, violent.
j^js*** sukhan or sukhun, a word, a
mater, a thing in general,
^ ^ar, the head, top ; a design : «f>r,
a secret
( 13 )
\xui
I,
rl
It** ^^ ^/** ^^^^ ^^ sarae, an inn.
Ul;.j*< 5or-a-pa, from head to foot, en-
tirely.
Ji4J^\jjM sarastma, disturbed, delirious.
c|^ suragh^ a sign, mark, trace.
jiAJjM*8arba muhr^ sealed up at the top.
}^j j^ sar-i-rah, a road, path.
Om^m sirishty nature^ constitution.
J^jtM sarkoTj a headman, G)urt, Gro-
vemment
i^^jt** surod, a song* a melody.
)J*M sazQf desert, punishment
jAm safar, a journey, voyage.
jS^Lm sikandaVf Alexander the Great
i^J^ sag, a dog.
JLm salam^ salutation, peace, safety.
^UaLj sultan^ a supreme ruler, em-
peror, king.
^j**-})^ salts, easy, familiar, not abstruse.
d^^^f^ samt, direction, side, quarter.
«amj sam\ hearing, the ear.
lIXaaw sang; a stone, a weight
MM sUy side, direction.
jiyM sawar, a horseman; sawdr shu^
dan, to be mounted.
Jlyw su-aly asking, begging, a question.
^^y^ siwae, except, besides. ^
^Ji^yu sokhtan, to burn, to be inflamed .
jbljy** saudagar, a merchant
>\-li»^ saugandy an oath; saugand
khurdan, to swear, literally, '* to
eat an oath." (Vide Story la)
A^M siwuMy the third, thirdly.
C:^MM sawiyat, equality, fairness.
JCm sih, three.
CI^maiLjLmi siyasatt punishment
Uw»
( 14 )
u
xUjm siyaky black.
Aj^ sikh, a spit.
jj^ sair, a walk, a journey.
^dxM «27a, a blow, a buffet.
Jli^m silz, a blow, a dap.
«Ami ^m, silver.
JLu^iM tfma, the bosom, breast
a^Am* ^n?2«;7i, the third, thirdly.
(^ JL& shddiy marriage, rejoicing.
jciut sha'iTy a poet
aIm^ sham, evening.
]sLmi «AaA, a king, monarch.
JJbldMi shahid, a witness, a bystander.
)Sfa>j^i$Li^ sKdh'Zada^ a king's son, prince.
^^^UMjLt shayistafiy to be fit, proper.
Ci;.^ Moft, night, evening.
u.^UJ1i shiiabi haste, speed.
yLt shutur^ a camel.
C>t^^ shaja^ati valour, prowess.
(jca^ shakhSf a person.
^iXt shudan, to be^ become.
^^ sharks interpretation, commentary.
lo^ shartf stipulation, wager.
Ajt*» sharrrii shame.
]{jJLyM sharmanda, ashamed, con-
founded, abashed.
9)j^ shuru'i beginning, attack.
im^jiit shanf^ noble» eminent, holy.
dJj^ sharik, a partner, companion.
fjiuji, shustan (r. ^ shuX to wash,
cleanse.
^1^ shash^ six»
f)^ shatranj^ the game of chess.
aIam shula, a flame.
c::>^r!pM> sMfaaty intercession* depre-
cation.
KJL^si i ^t shafkaty pity, compassion, af-
fection.
CXm shakk^ doubt
^vCi shikar, hunting, prey, game.
d^^lCt shikayaty complaint
jCm shukr, thanks; shakar, sugar.
vr --rC* shikast^f defeat, disaster.
^UuCt shikastan (root ^j^ shikan\
to break, defeat
>C& sMkamj the belly.
^yll^ shugun, an omen of good.
UJI> shuma, you : plur. of y , thou.
jjJLaJL shamsKzr, a sword,, scimatar.
^jii-lxi shiriakhtan, (r. ^^Llt shinas\
to know, recognise.
^^t3ajL& shimdan, to hear ; also «Atiii»-
(/ait, shamdan, >
«^ «/tor, noise, tumult, uproar.
Jb^ shohar and sAatJAar, a husband.
4^<Si shahdy honey> sugar.
j%J^ shahr, a city ; a lunar month,
Cl^L«4^ shah-mat, check-mate ; literally.
((
kinir dead.**
jj^ sher, a lion, a tiger.
^ji:^ Shtrin, name of a lady, wife
of Khusru Parwiz.
a^^^jJ^ shJsha, a phial, a glass.
^UajJa Shaitdn, Satan, the DeviL
U^
X»a sahib, a companion, a lord,
master: in composition, it means
endowed with ; as, sahib-kamalf pos-
sessed of perfection. (Vid. Grr. p. 28. b.)
lJU)
( 15 )
9\^ saf, pure, clear» evident.
JliC salihy honest) sincere, wise.
^U^ sabah^ morning, dawn of day;
''ala-s-sabdh or U-U^ sabahan, early
in the morning.
^^ 8ubh, the morning, dawn, Aurora.
I^s^ sahrd^ a desert, a plain.
i3^ sad^ a hundred.
JL^ sarrqff a banker, money-
changer,
i^ ^a?/| changing, turning; stiff,
pure, merely.
)s^M^ ^a fva, a kind of sparrow.
*— fi^ *a^, drawing up (men) in ranks ;
saffzada, mustered, arrayed.
^iLo saldhy advice, counsel.
^^ sulh, peace* concord.
jj^Sx^ sanduky a chest, box, trunk ;
sandukcha^ a small box.
<^y^ surat, form, figure, face.
Sx^ said, hunting, prey» game.
^j^Li zdmin, a surety, sponsor.
c» fi >ir., ^ za'?f, infirm, weak, poor,
ilyo ziyafat^ a feast, invitation.
j[U9 /QA;, a shelf» recess in a wall ; copula.
C^^lb taliby asking, studious.
v^^jUL tibabat, the medical art
(•^•^ool? tabibf a doctor, physician.
cJ^ taraf, extremity, direction, side.
^Ub /a'a^w, food, eating.
^U^ tuma, food, dinner.
(J^ /(^, an infant, a child.
iU9 ^//a, gold, gold fringe.
yJ^Vio ialdky divorce) dismissal.
L^JJb talab, petition, demand, wages;
talab ddshtan, to search.
^JojdL talabtdan, to seek for, call.
9^ tama\ avidity, desire.
iJo taur, mode, manner, condition.
^SsJs tutif a parrot
J^ ^au/ or tul, length, height, du-
ration,
-b tay^i traversing, travelling ; tayy
kardan, to traverse, pass over.
(w^^vjJ^ tayyib, good, agreeable.
Jit zdlim, tyrannical, oppressive.
^Ife zdhify ckar, evident, • certain.
iJo ^ar/*, a vessel, a vasci bottle.
sl}Jo zarifi witty, learned, graceful.
<UL5 ii^ Zafar-ndma, Book of Victory,
the title of several Persian work%
Jolc 'ddil, upright, just.
tc^lc 'ari, naked, destitute, bare.
^jJ^^ ^dshik, a lover, loving.
(JiLc 'aH/, wise, intelligent
JU 'dlam, the world, time, state ; 'a/im,
learned, wise.
tjujij^ 'ibddat, worship, adoration.
c:.^lxc Hbdrat, style (in writing), sense.
t— >lic ""itdb, reproof, anger.
C.^lac^ 'ajd-ibt marvels, wonders.
c--<s;f "^ajdb or luar^ 'ajuba, a wonder,
strange, marvellous,
(w^o^ 'ajib^ rare, wonderfuL
Ij^
( 16 )
CiJIfcXc ''adalat, justice, equity ; 'Ada-
lat-panah^ Asylum of Justice.
JiVc *(2fllZ, justice, integrity.
jSc uzr, excuse, apology.
v-^ ''Arab, an Arab, applied to those
who dwell in towns.
(j^ 'ctrz, a representation, speech.
lW- ^j^ 'Azza wajalla, May He be
honoured and glorified ! i»e, God.
ji^ 'cizzz dear, precious.
tofr ^asa^ a staff, a bludgeon.
jlLc ''attar, a druggist, a perfumer.
Joe 'itr, odour, perfume.
jic 'aju, forgiveness, indulgence.
fcVii^ 'dkd, an agreement, alliance.
ijA£, 'akl, reason, sense, wisdom.
vj:^^ 'akubat, punishment, torture.
s^L^^'cic' 'aldmat, a sign, mark, token.
As. Him, knowledge, science.
M^ 'ulunif sciences (plur. of last word).
A* 'Alt, a man's name.
^-Ifi 'ala, on or at
•AC 'i«»»r lifetime, age.
k).^*.^ 'amalf action, conduct, rule.
^Uc 'inan, a bridle, the reins.
VJl^Ub Hnayat, a favour, bounty.
(w^U ghalib, prevailing, victorious,
ci^^li ghat/at, the extreme, extremely.
^^^^^Aara^, wish, design; al-gharaz,
in short, finally.
2si^ ghurfa, a window, a parlour.
ijjyC ghurur, pride, haughtiness.
^^m^^^ gharlby poor, strange, rare.
Ajtc ghmsa, grief, anger.
ghazab, anger, vengeance.
mS£, ghuldm, a slave, a boy.
^ ghalla, com, grain,
laju^ ghaliz, cross, rude, sordid.
^ gham, grief, care, anxiety.
^^jAJt«^ ghamgm, sorrowful.
<w^jg ghaib, secrecy, invisibility ;
ghaib-ddm, knowledge of what is
secret.
^^^li Fdrsi, also ^^*J^ Pdrm, Persian.
UsAi fd'ida, profit, benefit.
^ fathy an opening, a victory.
js? fajr, the dawn, morning.
j^]/ fardkhur, suitable to, propor-
tional, in accordance with.
^^\^ fardkhiy extension, abundance.
L/^ir* y^****^^* * chamberlain.
f^^ fardgh, leisure, cessation.
\t*y^f fardmosh, forgetfiilness.
^J^^^ fardwdn, great, important
^ farbih, fat, flourishing.
ItXi fardd, to-morrow.
jJjy farzand, a son, a child. •
^t^\Xm3 firistddany to send.
d^w^ fursat, opportunity, leisure.
^S^i farmdn, a command, edict.
^ Jj^ farmudan, to order : it is used
in the sense of **to speak, say,*' on
the part of a superior ; also, to do.
^^ faro (before a vowel, d^^ farod)t
down, below, underneath.
^^^^^ farokhtan (t. \^^J^\ to sell.
yi'^J farosh (in composition), a seller.
jbi faryddf a complaint, a cry for aid.
(^ Ju i faryadti & complainant, plaintiff.
S-^^ J?re6 or farehy deception ; fareb
dadan, to impose on.
y*j^^i fiTeftan^ to deceive, to mistake.
iS^ffJ^h season, a section.
\/t3 fukara, poor people : plur. of
j^ fakir y a poor person, a mendicant
^jikr^ thought, anxiety.
^^^lU Faldtun, the same as Aflatun^
^Jiifulan^ some one, such a one.
^^yifulus, coins of small Talue, cow-
rieSf dibs.
^y/ai{/, "an army,
j^y/awran, instantly.
^Sju^/ahmtdan, to understand.
^Jfif in : used only in Arabic phrases.
(Jjsftl, an elephant (also (Jjj pil.)
17 )
yi\i kabUy means, opportunity.
^^13 kas», a Judge. ^
J^ kabul consent, agreement.
(JjS kadt killing, execution.
tySkad, length, stature, figure (alsoAme^).
jt^ kadar, measure, quantity, extent.
dJ^jJ kudraty power, daring.
^(Vif kadinii old, ancient
j]j3 karar, settlement, agreeing.
fjcji karz or kirz^ a loan, a debt
jtiX^' karz-ddr, a debtor.
^juJ kasam, an oath ; kasam-khurdan,
to swear ; literally, " to eat an oath,"
hence the pun in Story 18.
v_!V--f"-*' kUmatf division, partition.
S^ hasd, purpose, design.
\xaS kasdan, purposely, intentionally.
j^ kasr, a citadel, palace.
^'kaza^ fate, destiny, death.
«^^«5a3 kit'a, a section, part, stanza.
«i)iU kiiadaf a collar, a kind of ornament
for the neck.
jIa3 kimar, dice or any game of hazard.
CUy or Sy kuwat, strength, firmness,
v^y kawiy^ strong, powerful.
]^ kahran^ by force, on compulsion.
Sxs kaid, thraldom, imprisonment
L:i-N4a5 kimaty price, value.
jo kdr^ business, use, affair..
Jil^ kaghaz or kdghiZy paper, a letter.
t>«o kdmil, perfect, entire, accomplished.
aO A:am, desire, intention ; kdm nd"
kdm, willingly or unwillingly.
8o iaA, straw,' hay, grass.
u^od kabdb, meat, fried or roasted.
L^l!o A:2Va6, a book, an epistle.
(^Q■J.t^ kastfy coarse, thick.
lac^ kujdy where ? what place ? how ?
^-tf^ kaj-maj, crooked, cross purposes.
Ai^ kuddm, what one? which?
ji kar, deaf.
^)ji kirdya^ hire, fare, rent,
^^d^kardan (r. ^ kun\to do, to make.
lywJ A;a«, a person, any, some one.
<w^M<i^ A:a«6, gain, art, trade.
^jI^ kushddan, to open, disclose.
,^^^Ui^ kashdkashf contention, .battle.
fJL^'J^ kishtj check, a term at chess.
J\Jj^ kishtzdr, a corn-field.
^JxmJ kushtan, tq* slay, kill, extinguish.
fji^JL^ kushudan, to open.
d
'^
J^
( 18 )
vXiT
^iVx^ kashtdan^ to pull, draw, deli-
neate.
JS kufr, impiety, infidelity.
^jA^ kafan^ a winding-sheet, a shrond.
^JIS kaldnt great, aged, elder.
d^UJ^ kalimaty words, sayings.
^^ kulukh^ a clod, brick.
J^ kulU, all, the whole.
tXkK kaltd^ a key.
^ A:a^, little, few, scarce.
Jto kamal, perfection, accomplishment
^tfd Ara^Tian, a bow.
^U> kinar, side, bosom, margin.
s^Lo kinara or A^nara, side, brink,
shore of the sea or river.
^iyx> kandan^ to dig, extract, tear up.
JjjS kanzz, a maiden, a maid-servant.
sli^ kotah^ short, small.
^^^kotrmli a magistrate, judge,
jj^ A:or or iwr, blind.
jS kuZy hump- backed, crooked.
&i kiy who? that, used as a conjunc-
tive particle, like the Greek ort, after
verbs signifying to think, speak, tell,&a
^ kuhatty also JU^ kuhna, old, worn.
MjbJL^ fast, for J^, and c:
»1, who is?
XuiJo ktsa or kesa, a purse, a bag.
^^ gahy time, also place (in composition).
Ijo^aefa, poor, a beggar, mendicant
^1/^M guzashtan^ to quit, forsake, leave.
jd^ guzar^ a pass, passing.
^Xi*i? guzaahtan (x,jm guzar), to
pass, pass by.
^ gar f if I contraction of j^l.
ulr S^^^y heavy, important, valuable.
^ gurba^ a cat
^^ girdy around; ^ar(i^ dust.
^«Xaj)J^ gardamdan^ to circulate, to
effect, cause to become,
i:)*^ go^rdan^ the neck.
^j^j^^ gardidaUj to turn round, to be,
to become.
<Umi^ gursinaj hungry, famished.
^^_^^**^ gursinagt, hunger, starvation.
jdi^giriftjar^ caught, involved, a capture.
\^^ giTiflaUyXo catch, seize, to begin :
so in Grerman,/an^eii, to catch ; an-
fangen^ to begin.
^f gOLTtny warm, hot, pi^ionate.
Up garmdy heat, hot season.
V^ ^«Va«?, a pawn, pledge, wager.
t^^ gurohy a troop, band, company.
jjXi*^ gurekhtan^ girekhtan^ to flee,
run away. v
^jXujj^ gtnstan, to weep, bewaU; so
giriyan sAudan^ to be weeping.
^jOjimS gustardan^ to spread, arrange.
^JxiS gashtan^ (r. ^arcD, to be, to
become.
jjii? guftan (r. y ^5), to say, speak.
f^ CI^^A^ guft'O'gu or guftgUf conver-
sation! chit-chat.
i^ gala oxgaUa, a flock, herd.
S gutnf lost, missing.
^JLS^^ gumashtan^ to consign, send
forth.
slj6^f<naA, fault, crime, sin.
aS ganj^ a treasure.
^jJ6 gandum, wheat
V
( 19 )
^^fgawah^ a witness, an evidence.
Jb!*? gawaht^ testimony, evidence.
^Umj;^ goristaUy a burying-ground.
Sx^^^ also 6JAui^ gospand^ gosfanl,
a sheep, a ram, a goat
c:^^ ^oM^, flesh, meat
jJ^ guna^ mode, manner, form.*"
r^
S /a, (a negative particle, Arab.), no not :
used as a prefix ; as in v^l^lt Id-
jawdb, without an answer, silenced.
Jp*i Id'ik, worthy, proper, fit for.
^Jj^lahdda or lubdda. a thick outer
garment, a boat-cloak.
c:.^ lat>i a thiunp, a blow.
aW lijdm or lajdm, a bridle, the reins.
^yJ^i laziz, sweet, pleasant.
^J larza^ a shaking, trembling, tremor.
cA^ ladff good, pleasant, kind.
ai^A^ ladfoy a witty saying, pleasantry.
(JJ /aV, a ruby, a gem.
IsAi lafz^ a word, a vocable.
4XAfli lukma, a morsel, a mouthful.
\iJi lak, a numeral expressive of 100,000.
JSi ligdm or lagdm, a bridle.
(JLXil /a;^^, lame, an epitliet applied to
the celebrated Timur.
^^^ lekm^ but, yet, nevertheless.
jtju\ la^im^ a base man.
r
to «w5, we : plur. of the 1st person.
^Jut cl;U mdtshudan, to be check-
mated ; mdt'kardan, to give check-
mate*
J^>-U md-jardi an accident, event, what
has passed or occurred.
j4>to mddar, a mother.
St^U mddaf a female.
^L> jU madiydnt a mare.
JLo waZ, wealth, treasure, property.
(k^Lo mdlik, a master, possessor. #
^^iXaILo mdlzdany to rub, to anoint
^tX!U mdndan, to remain, continue.
sU mdh, the moon, a month.
^U mdhl, a fish.
^;^ ^Ist mdhZ'gzr, a fisherman, a fish-
catcher.
\t}h^ma'bddd. May it not be ! God forbid !
^Iju mubdlagha, a strenuous efibrt,
urgency, hyperbole.
ilxo mablaghy a sum (of money) price.
J^lxo muta-ammily thoughtfiil, con-
templative.
^jJU mutadayyin, orthodox, religious.
w^s:*'^»iwto*q2)/^»^*o'^^shed, wondering.
j^slLc mutafakkir, meditating, thoughtfiil.
^iJto mutaki^ sober, pious, temperate.
(jwt« mt^/, similitude, like, likeness.
L-jj(Xs^ majzubf abstracted, absent
Ojsr^ mujarrady solitary, alone.
^i#Jar* majliSy an assembly, company.
<0y^^ maA62i^6a, loved, esteemed.
^Usr^ muhtdj^ in want of, destitute.
M^js^ mdhrumy excluded, disappointed..
)a^nst^ mahzuZj pleased, delighted.
jAac^ muhakkaTf vile, trifling, con-
temptible, worthless.
^«iaff* muhkamy strong, firm, firmly.
cV^cs^ Mukammadi a man's name, the
celebrated prophet of the Muslims.
r^
(
tiy4ee* Mahmudi a man's namet a king
of GhisEni, about A*D. 1000.
^d^ f^ mahtV'kardan, to wipe out
il3ar« mukhtar, absolute, a free agent
u-aUs**' mukhtaliff diverse, various.
ijL^tVo mtiddat, a space of time.
Mg,S^madh, praise, eulogy, encomium.
^^JS^ madrasa, a college, sch<^L
^c*i^ miidda'iy plaintiff^ accuser.
j^^ mazkur^ mentioned, aforesaid.
j^ mara^ me, to me.
^\r^ murafa^a, citing before a Judge,
a law-suit
^j^ martaba^ step, dignity* a time.
^j^ marsiya^ an elegy, a funeral oration.
t^j< mardf a man, a hero.
aJ^ mardum, a person, man.
^i^j^ murdan, (root^^ mir\ to die.
^dj^ murdOf plur. murdagan, dead.
jy^ ^ jj^ marz o kishrvar^ empire,
kingdom.
fj^ murgh, a fowl, a bird.
ji\tii^ musafir, a traveller) a stranger.
• ^Um^ mcLsakinf habitations, dwellings.
\j:^AMi^niast^ intoxicated, wanton, furious.
f^jj**^ mostly intoxication.
dss***^ masjidf a mosque, or any place
of worship.
^js'**^ maskhara^ a jester, a buffoon.
^^;XXmv« maskzUf humble, poor, wretched.
l-jAmj^ tnaslubf seized, stripped, erred.
4XjUmw« masnad, a throne, a prop.
kj:^J^ mtisht, the fist, a blow.
J JtA^ mashghulf occupied, engaged in.
.•^#^ mash-hury celebrated, notorious,
public.
20 ) ^
^i>A g h.l. ^ ^ mtesdhiby a companion, a friend,
courtier. *
Ci^'cs^^'^^ maslahaty good counsel, good
policy, the best course to adopt or
the best thing to be done.
j^^^ musaromir^ a painter.
;oia^ mathakhy the kitchen, a place for
cooktbg.
L-JyL^ mutrib, a musician, a minstrel.
OIx« muttali^ inspecting, seeing.
ma', with, in the company o£
9U« muafy forgiven, spared, free.
jdL«U« mucbnala^ business^ transaction,
affair.
^UuU..^ muayanay beholding^ seeing
clearly.
j^tXjc« ma'zurt excused, excusable.
L^^^^ 9ita'i^, celebrated, well known.
Am^ mu'aUim^ a doctor, teacher^ sage.
^jLc« ma'lumf known, evident
(.^A« md*na or ma nit sense, meaning,
fact, a sacred record.
{Jm Mughalj name of a Tartar or
Scythian tribe, vulgarly Mogtd.
dyiSL^ mafkudy missing, not to be found.
yJs s L'c mufliSt poor, indigent
^^mJla^ muflisty poverty, destitution.
Sjkk^muftd, usefid, salutary.
JJLe makam, place, residence.
jlj^ mikdar, quantity, space, measure.
^[^ mikraZy shears, scissors.
JiiLo mukfal, locked, bolted, stingy.
jC^magar, but, unless, only.
{^j*JU magas, a fly..^
ci.9Ul« mtdakat, meeting, interview. -
^^«Lo maVun^ accursed, the Evil One
>
( 21 )
^yLcmalul, fatigued, vexed.
LlAL«mt/A;,property ; midkia, coantry^kiog-
dom; malikySL king; malak^aa angel.
^^^Ia^ mumkin^ possible, practicable.
^ man, the 1st pers. pronoun, I.
4^ jLLe manadi, a proclamation.
c:^ljl«me<na;sa'a/',contention,Utigation.
^Ouuilx^ mMnaA;a«Aa, quarrel, dispute.
V««^^i^u^ muntakhabt a selection.
fȣ^tc munajjimy an- astrologer.
JjXo manzily an abode, a stage, an inn.
<w»^v»A< mansabf a high station, dig^itj^
^X«man\ prohibition, prevention.
^Iax« «»/nArar, a beak, bill.
^;Ca^ tnunkir, one who denies, refuses.
S(>^)^ mt^<ikhaza, taking satisfaction,
calling to account
J^^yo muwqfik, conformable to, like.
<:L>yo mautf death.
^^ y -yo mujiby cause, motive, reason.
*^f*'y^ ffiaujUd, existing, found, ready.
<— '^^ mausHf, praised, qualified, de-
scribed.
i^^yc maulawty a doctor of the Mu-
hammadan law.
^yc mum or mom^ wax, a wax candle.
M^yo mawhum, imaginary, fancied.
(^^ mue, hair, wool, fur.
j^ muhr, a seal, a seal ring; mihr,
friendship, love.
^U^ mihr-baity kind, beneficent.
Cl'^Vg'^t mihUity delay, space of time.
^U^ mihmany a guest, a stranger.
^^ mcuy wine, spirituous liquor.
^Ix* miyan, middle, interval, space.
A^ mekhy a peg, a tent pin or pole.
r^
u
li na^ a negative particle to adjectives,
participles, and infinitives.
UjoL) hSbmay not seeing, blind.
^Lj-li nacJiaTy helpless, without remedy.
Jf^-ll naJiakkf unjust, untrue,
j^^li nakhushy displeased.
(JJiU naJcUy a narrator, historian.
sob' na-gah, suddenly, unexpectedly.
(jaJu nalishf lamentation, complaint
^^mJu nalisMj a complainant, plaintiff.
aU nam, name, renown.
^5(>^Una-mar^f,unmanliness,cowardice.
jjU nan, bread, a loaf.
^--<>U na-ib, a lieutenant, deputy.
CL^li^ najaif freedom, salvatioi^ escape.
l^fcXS nadimy a companion, a courtier,
jjj na^r, a present or offenng.
^ nar^ a male.
4>ji na;2r6i?, near, about, in the possession of.
CLAj4>ji nazdtky near, close to.
cfi na^;', removal; na^'*i rawan, the
last breath, the soul's departure.
CL *»j»»o nisbatf affinity, connection.
^UJ ni>Mn, a trace, mark.
^iXJuUJ nishanidanj to place, cause to
sit down ; also ^Jol^J.
ImmU nishastan, or nishistan, (r. ^jX»^
nisAzn), to sit, stop, settle.
sua> ni^ the half, middle.
yj^s^Lai nasihatf advice, admonition,
a sermon.
Jai nazary the sight, the eye.
4^ nu^rriy prosperity, good fortune.
ntmaty a blessing, favour,
prosperity.
cr
«A^ naf^^ gain» profit, advantage.
^^ nafaka^ maintenance, salary.
^IaJ nakkash^ a painter.
iVftJ nakd, ready money» cash.
(j£ksS nakshy a painting, a picture.
^LoaJ nuksan, damage, 4eficiency, loss.
j5Cj nukta, a point, a quaint saying.
iiljj nigahj a look, observation ; ne^aA
dashtan^ to watch over, preserve;
nigah-dary a preserver : also used as
an interjection, beware \ have a care !
jUo namaZy prayer, worship.
dyA^ ncmmdy an appearance, index.
^J|^ naiTii/eiKan, to appear, to shew,
to make. ^
y nat^^ new, fresh, young.
Cl^y naubaty time, turn, opportunity.
^^jl^y navishtan (r. i;**iy itat??*), to
write; also ^jX^ljii nabishtan,
^l^jjj-iy Naushtrwan, name of a Per-
sian king, famed for equity.
^ J nateArar, a servant, slave.
:$tyjw J navtsanda, a writer.
^, the negative particle, not; n««A, nine.
^jjl^ nihadany to place, put, apply.
d^Ui niyabat^ the office of a deputy.
• yo mz, also, even, likewise.
c:^^*MJU ?»ii9A he, she, it, is not.
CXu neA;, good, beautiful, right.
^^UGo ff^Ar-naTTti, fame, renown.
^jo nekOy good, excellent.
▲A) nayarrty I am not.
>jj nm, the half, the middle.
( 22 )
I^ W?a, back, reverse.
^^jMhJi^ wapaSy back, returned.
Cli^ic);)^ tmridatj events, occurrences.
Ly^'^^ foajahy a span, about nine inches.
J^^ wajhj face, mode, manner,
ci^l^j wazarat, the office of a wcuur,
jlj^ wcunr^ a minister, the king's vicegerent
cAk^^ ti7a^, description, quality,
^jbj, nw/!vt or watan^ one^s native coun-
try, home.
sScy wotdc^ a promise, a vow, pledge.
mP^ wc^Zy a sermon, admonition, lecture.
ti^ n?q/&, fidelity, sincerity,
d^lj^ wafdt, death, decease,
d^^ n^ajr/*, time, hour, season.
Jjki^ fvaA;?^, an agent, deputy, factor.
,^y tvaiy 3d pers. pron. he, she, it.
wa (sometimes o), and, but.
^jj^wt HdruHi a man's name.
*>J^jJI cJi^j'* -Erarttii-ar-rflwA2ii,"Harun
the Wise,*' one of the Khalifas, of
Baghdad.
js^ hqjWy ridicule, satire, lampoon.
J* haVy every, each.
^^J^ harchandy although, notwith-
standing.
i^^karchiy whatsoever.
hSj^ harkiy every one who, whosoever.
80^ hargah, every time, whenever.
SjB^ hargiZy ever, at all, on any account.
J^^ HurmuZt name of a Persian king.
j|^ hazar^ a thousand.
\JL>^J^ hazimatf flight, defeat.
^JujJb hastatty to be, to exist; a de-
fective verb. (Vide Gram. p. 48. c.)
.« A
( 23 )
Ji
Lll.'vlft hasht, eight
^ ham^ even, also, (in composition)
^ together.
^Ujb haman, that very, even that ; ha-
man-dam, that very instant
^ae^^ hamchU^ even as, like.
^Uar^ hamchunan^ such as that, even
so.
s|^>«Jb /lam-rdh, a companion, along with.
<)L)L^4^tb ham-sa^Uy a neighbour.
^UJb hamp, all, every one
^^M*JL4Jb hamesha, always.
^^jMJt Aa»»-m, even this, this very.
i^dJJb SindUy an IndiaUf a Hindu.
^U^t^JoZb Hindustan, India.
J Jjt hanoz, yet, still, at present
JXjJb kangdm, time, season.
1 Jb A(Ziz?a, the air, the sky.
^Jb hech, any, at all> in the least.
b ya, either, or.
t^jyadt memory, remembrance.
jlS jL) yddgdr, a memorial.
»l> yar, a friend.
^jlib ydftan^ to find, obtain.
(J^, ya'fUy that is to say, namely.
^jJb yakm, certainty, for certain.
(i^Aj yaA*, one, a or an : sometimes
joined to the following word; as,
larV. yak-jd, in one place, together.
j^jd^ yak-diram, a diram^ a small coin.
ji^*^yak-dtgar, one wiother.
JIam^ji yaA^^a/,one year, a twelvemonth.
^IjwaC[ yaksdn, equal, similari identical.
j^J^ yak-hazdr, a thousand.
<«LLaO yak-yak, or ViIIAaaC) yak-ba-
yak, one by one, individually, one
after another.
ADDITIONAL COERECTIONS.
P. 13> 1. 20. In some copies the reading is, ** when the ^^ quiescent is pre-
ceded by zamma " — instead of which, read, " when the letter f^ is preceded by
zamma.'*
P. 41, Rule III., read, " Infinitives in ^J dan, preceded by ^ n, j r,j z," &c.
Pp. 44, 45, In the examples of the verbs *' to strike," and " (O be ^'■•—instead
of Second Future,'"* read, "Simple FutureJi-
W. M. Watts, Crown Court, Temple Bar.]
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